ВСЕ ТЕОРИИ ПРОИСХОЖДЕНИЯ ВСЕЛЕННОЙ ИЛИ ИНФЛЯЦИОННАЯ ВСЕЛЕННАЯ.
**The Quest for Understanding Mass: The Pioneering Work of Henry Cavendish and His Legacy**
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In 1797, at the age of 67, Henry Cavendish dedicated his attention to a device left to him from pure scientific respect. This peculiar apparatus, reminiscent of a training device for muscle pumping, featured weights, pendulums, handles, and twisting metal cables. The core of this contraption was 2,350-pound lead balls placed side by side, with two smaller balls included in the design. The purpose of this intricate setup was to measure the gravitational deflection of small balls under the influence of larger masses. This experiment marked a significant milestone in scientific history, as it aimed to determine the elusive value of the gravitational constant, from which one could deduce the mass of the Earth.
Cavendish's device required utmost precision, as even the slightest interference would compromise its accuracy. To ensure this, Cavendish set up the apparatus in an isolated room and observed it through a peephole with a telescope. The process was grueling, involving 17 precise interrelated measurements that took nearly an entire year to complete. Finally, after years of meticulous calculations, Cavendish announced that the Earth weighed approximately 5.92 × 10^24 metric tons. This figure confirmed Newton's estimates and laid the groundwork for modern gravitational studies.
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**The Enigmatic Genius: John Michell and His Contributions**
While Cavendish's work is often celebrated, another brilliant mind of the era, John Michell, deserves equal recognition. A Yorkshire priest by profession, Michell was an outstanding thinker whose scientific achievements were remarkable. He conducted original research in fields such as magnetism and gravity, even foreseeing the possibility of black holes two centuries before others.
Michell's work on the Earth's axis and his contributions to astronomy were groundbreaking. His insights into planetary motion and celestial mechanics earned him a place among history's greatest scientists. Despite his modest position and remote residence, Michell's intellectual prowess was unmatched, and his legacy continues to influence modern science.
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**The Mass of the Earth: Charles Hutton's Revolutionary Calculations**
Charles Hutton made significant strides in calculating the Earth's mass using surveyor data from Scotland's mountains. By analyzing hundreds of measurements taken by teams of surveyors, Hutton determined that the Earth's mass was approximately 5 billion trillion metric tons. This figure was derived by assuming the Earth had a density similar to an ordinary stone, about half the density of water.
Hutton's calculations were revolutionary, as they provided a scientific basis for understanding not only the Earth's mass but also the masses of other celestial bodies. His work demonstrated how gravitational principles could be applied to determine the mass of planets and their satellites, paving the way for future astronomical discoveries.
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**The Legacy Continues: Maxwell and the Modern Theory of Magnetism**
In the late 19th century, James Clerk Maxwell further advanced scientific understanding with his modern theory of magnetism. As a Cambridge physicist, he took on the task of preparing papers related to Linde's step printing, incorporating nearly all of Cavendish's discoveries. Maxwell's work laid the foundation for contemporary studies in electrical conductivity and contributed significantly to the field of physics.
Maxwell's achievements highlight the enduring impact of earlier pioneers like Cavendish and Michell. Their groundbreaking research not only advanced scientific knowledge but also inspired future generations of scientists to explore the mysteries of the universe.
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**The Law of Conservation of Energy: A Foregone Conclusion**
Among Cavendish's many contributions, his anticipation of the law of conservation of energy stands out as a testament to his scientific genius. This principle, which states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, was later formalized by other scientists but originated in Cavendish's groundbreaking work.
Cavendish's insights into electrical conductivity and his anticipation of Ohm's law and Dalton's partial pressure law further demonstrated his profound understanding of natural phenomena. His discoveries were ahead of their time, often remaining unknown until much later.
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**The Enduring Impact: From Maxwell to Modern Science**
As we reflect on the legacy of these scientific giants, it becomes clear that their work laid the groundwork for modern physics. Today, scientists continue to refine our understanding of mass and weight, using precise instruments to measure even the most minute gravitational interactions. The devices at our disposal are so sensitive that they can detect changes in weight caused by a single bacterium or malfunction due to something as trivial as a yawn.
Cavendish's experiment, conducted over 200 years ago without leaving his home, provides a stark contrast to the sophisticated tools we use today. Yet, despite technological advancements, the fundamental principles discovered by these early scientists remain the cornerstone of modern physics.
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**Conclusion: The Timeless Relevance of Early Scientific Contributions**
The story of Henry Cavendish, John Michell, Charles Hutton, and James Clerk Maxwell is a testament to human ingenuity and the enduring quest for knowledge. Their work on the Earth's mass, gravitational constants, and electromagnetic theories not only advanced scientific understanding but also paved the way for future discoveries.
As we continue to explore the universe and unravel its mysteries, the contributions of these pioneers remain as relevant today as they were in their time. The devices under our feet, literally, hold the key to determining the Earth's age, a task that seems relatively simple yet profound. Through their groundbreaking experiments, these scientists have left an indelible mark on history, reminding us of the boundless potential of human curiosity and ingenuity.
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This article captures the essence of early scientific exploration and its lasting impact on modern science, highlighting the achievements of Henry Cavendish, John Michell, Charles Hutton, and James Clerk Maxwell. Their work continues to inspire scientists and shape our understanding of the world.
"WEBVTTKind: captionsLanguage: enthey are all in one plane, they all rotatethey are all in one plane, they all rotatethey are all in one plane, they all rotatein one direction you understand itin one direction you understand itin one direction you understand itabsolutely this is great this is almostabsolutely this is great this is almostabsolutely this is great this is almostsupernatural astronomer mercy osupernatural astronomer mercy osupernatural astronomer mercy osolar systemsolar systemsolar systemno matter how hard you try you will neverno matter how hard you try you will neverno matter how hard you try you will neveryou will be able to comprehend how small how muchyou will be able to comprehend how small how muchyou will be able to comprehend how small how muchthe proton is spatially insignificantthe proton is spatially insignificantthe proton is spatially insignificantsimply extremely small proton immeasurably smallsimply extremely small proton immeasurably smallsimply extremely small proton immeasurably smallpart of an atom which itself representspart of an atom which itself representspart of an atom which itself representssomething quite insignificantsomething quite insignificantsomething quite insignificantthe size of protons is so small thatthe size of protons is so small thatthe size of protons is so small thata tiny dot above the Latin letter anda tiny dot above the Latin letter anda tiny dot above the Latin letter andcontain about 50 million of themcontain about 50 million of themcontain about 50 million of thembillions of pieces, which is significantly morebillions of pieces, which is significantly morebillions of pieces, which is significantly morethe number of seconds that make up half a millionthe number of seconds that make up half a millionthe number of seconds that make up half a millionyears so the proton is exceptionalyears so the proton is exceptionalyears so the proton is exceptionalmicroscopic to say the leastmicroscopic to say the leastmicroscopic to say the leastNow imagine that you managed to do it thoughNow imagine that you managed to do it thoughNow imagine that you managed to do it thoughof course you won't be able to compress itof course you won't be able to compress itof course you won't be able to compress itone of the protons to one billionthone of the protons to one billionthone of the protons to one billionthits normal size so that next toits normal size so that next toits normal size so that next toto him, an ordinary proton seemed enormousto him, an ordinary proton seemed enormousto him, an ordinary proton seemed enormouspack it in this tiny tinypack it in this tiny tinypack it in this tiny tinyspace about a tablespoonspace about a tablespoonspace about a tablespoonsubstances are excellent you are ready to putsubstances are excellent you are ready to putsubstances are excellent you are ready to putthe beginning of the universe I suppose of coursethe beginning of the universe I suppose of coursethe beginning of the universe I suppose of coursethat you want to create inflationthat you want to create inflationthat you want to create inflationthe universe if instead of and and youthe universe if instead of and and youthe universe if instead of and and youprefer to create a more old-fashionedprefer to create a more old-fashionedprefer to create a more old-fashionedstandard big bang universestandard big bang universestandard big bang universethen you will need additionalthen you will need additionalthen you will need additionalyou will need the essence materialsyou will need the essence materialsyou will need the essence materialscollect everything that is in the world all up tocollect everything that is in the world all up tocollect everything that is in the world all up tothe last speck of dust and particle of matterthe last speck of dust and particle of matterthe last speck of dust and particle of matterfrom here to the edge of the universe and squeeze infrom here to the edge of the universe and squeeze infrom here to the edge of the universe and squeeze inall this in a region so infinitely smallall this in a region so infinitely smallall this in a region so infinitely smallwhat size does it even have?what size does it even have?what size does it even have?is called a singularityis called a singularityis called a singularityin both cases, prepare forin both cases, prepare forin both cases, prepare forreally big bang to watchreally big bang to watchreally big bang to watchThis is a spectacle you will obviously want to seeThis is a spectacle you will obviously want to seeThis is a spectacle you will obviously want to seesome safe placesome safe placesome safe placeUnfortunately, there is nowhere to go becauseUnfortunately, there is nowhere to go becauseUnfortunately, there is nowhere to go becausethere is no where beyond the singularitythere is no where beyond the singularitythere is no where beyond the singularityonce the universe starts expanding it won'tonce the universe starts expanding it won'tonce the universe starts expanding it won'tfill the surrounding voidfill the surrounding voidfill the surrounding voidthe only space thatthe only space thatthe only space thatthere is this one that she createsthere is this one that she createsthere is this one that she createsitself as it expandsitself as it expandsitself as it expandsvery natural but wrongvery natural but wrongvery natural but wrongimagine the singularity as somethingimagine the singularity as somethingimagine the singularity as somethinglike a pregnant dot hanging in the darklike a pregnant dot hanging in the darklike a pregnant dot hanging in the darkboundless emptiness but there is noboundless emptiness but there is noboundless emptiness but there is nothere is no emptiness, there is no darknessthere is no emptiness, there is no darknessthere is no emptiness, there is no darknessthere is no singularity aroundthere is no singularity aroundthere is no singularity aroundspacesspacesspaceswhich could be occupied nowhich could be occupied nowhich could be occupied nothere is no place where it would be locatedthere is no place where it would be locatedthere is no place where it would be locatedwe can't even ask how muchwe can't even ask how muchwe can't even ask how muchtime she is there or she is theretime she is there or she is theretime she is there or she is therejust suddenly emerged as a lucky breakjust suddenly emerged as a lucky breakjust suddenly emerged as a lucky breakthe thought was that it was always calm therethe thought was that it was always calm therethe thought was that it was always calm therewaiting for the right moment notwaiting for the right moment notwaiting for the right moment notshe has no pastshe has no pastshe has no pastwhich is to be exited and from whichwhich is to be exited and from whichwhich is to be exited and from whichnothing begins our universenothing begins our universenothing begins our universewith one blinding impulse inwith one blinding impulse inwith one blinding impulse inthe triumphant moment is sothe triumphant moment is sothe triumphant moment is soso fast that words cannot express itso fast that words cannot express itso fast that words cannot express itthe singularity expands and acquiresthe singularity expands and acquiresthe singularity expands and acquirestake up cosmic proportionstake up cosmic proportionstake up cosmic proportionsunimaginable space 1unimaginable space 1unimaginable space 1a second of life a second of which manya second of life a second of which manya second of life a second of which manyCosmologists devote their lives to studying everythingCosmologists devote their lives to studying everythingCosmologists devote their lives to studying everythingshorter and instantaneous produce onshorter and instantaneous produce onshorter and instantaneous produce onlight gravity and other forces thatlight gravity and other forces thatlight gravity and other forces thatPhysicists rule in less than a minutePhysicists rule in less than a minutePhysicists rule in less than a minutethe universe reaches in diameterthe universe reaches in diameterthe universe reaches in diametera million billion kilometers anda million billion kilometers anda million billion kilometers andcontinues to grow rapidly thiscontinues to grow rapidly thiscontinues to grow rapidly thisthe moment is very hotthe moment is very hotthe moment is very hot10 billion degrees is enough10 billion degrees is enough10 billion degrees is enoughso that nuclear reactions can take placeso that nuclear reactions can take placeso that nuclear reactions can take placegenerate the lightest elements mainlygenerate the lightest elements mainlygenerate the lightest elements mainlyhydrogen and helium with a tinyhydrogen and helium with a tinyhydrogen and helium with a tinywith the addition of lithium at approximately one atom per 100with the addition of lithium at approximately one atom per 100with the addition of lithium at approximately one atom per 100millions are formed in three minutes 98millions are formed in three minutes 98millions are formed in three minutes 98percent of all matter thatpercent of all matter thatpercent of all matter thatexists now or will ever existexists now or will ever existexists now or will ever existto exist we got the universe placeto exist we got the universe placeto exist we got the universe placewith amazing and inspiringwith amazing and inspiringwith amazing and inspiringthe prospects are also very beautiful andthe prospects are also very beautiful andthe prospects are also very beautiful andwe will do everything and in the time it takeswe will do everything and in the time it takeswe will do everything and in the time it takesmaking a sandwich when is itmaking a sandwich when is itmaking a sandwich when is ithappened question debatable cosmologistshappened question debatable cosmologistshappened question debatable cosmologistsThere has long been debate about whether creation took placeThere has long been debate about whether creation took placeThere has long been debate about whether creation took placethe world 10 billion years ago in twothe world 10 billion years ago in twothe world 10 billion years ago in twobefore and only somewhere between thesebefore and only somewhere between thesebefore and only somewhere between theseat times the general opinion seems to be leaningat times the general opinion seems to be leaningat times the general opinion seems to be leaningto the value of 13.7 billion years but how do weto the value of 13.7 billion years but how do weto the value of 13.7 billion years but how do wewe continue to see such things that it's offensivewe continue to see such things that it's offensivewe continue to see such things that it's offensiveit's hard to measure essentially everythingit's hard to measure essentially everythingit's hard to measure essentially everythingyou can say that this is something that in someyou can say that this is something that in someyou can say that this is something that in someat an unspecified point in the very distantat an unspecified point in the very distantat an unspecified point in the very distantin the past for unknown reasons hadin the past for unknown reasons hadin the past for unknown reasons hadplace moment denoted in science as tplace moment denoted in science as tplace moment denoted in science as tequals zeroequals zeroequals zeroIt all started with him, of course, we are still veryIt all started with him, of course, we are still veryIt all started with him, of course, we are still veryWe don’t know much and often think thatWe don’t know much and often think thatWe don’t know much and often think thatwe know who we are but we don't really know whatwe know who we are but we don't really know whatwe know who we are but we don't really know whator for a long time even she thought soor for a long time even she thought soor for a long time even she thought sothe idea of the big bang came up completelythe idea of the big bang came up completelythe idea of the big bang came up completelyIt has recently been discussed in detail withIt has recently been discussed in detail withIt has recently been discussed in detail with1920s when the Belgian A Baty1920s when the Belgian A Baty1920s when the Belgian A BatyThe scientist Georges Lemaitre first proposed itThe scientist Georges Lemaitre first proposed itThe scientist Georges Lemaitre first proposed itas a working hypothesis butas a working hypothesis butas a working hypothesis butit was not really actively usedit was not really actively usedit was not really actively usedcosmology until the mid-1960scosmology until the mid-1960scosmology until the mid-1960swhen two young people for the sake of astronomerswhen two young people for the sake of astronomerswhen two young people for the sake of astronomersaccidentally made an amazing discoveryaccidentally made an amazing discoveryaccidentally made an amazing discoveryBig Bang cosmology or more preciselyBig Bang cosmology or more preciselyBig Bang cosmology or more preciselythe expanding universe evolved withthe expanding universe evolved withthe expanding universe evolved with1917 when belinda sitar found1917 when belinda sitar found1917 when belinda sitar foundsolution of einstein equations describingsolution of einstein equations describingsolution of einstein equations describingexpansion of empty spaceexpansion of empty spaceexpansion of empty spaceAlexander Friedman found it in 1922Alexander Friedman found it in 1922Alexander Friedman found it in 1922the solution from which it followed thatthe solution from which it followed thatthe solution from which it followed thatthe universe filled with matter mustthe universe filled with matter mustthe universe filled with matter musteither expand or contract edwineither expand or contract edwineither expand or contract edwinhubblehubblehubble1929 independently discovered1929 independently discovered1929 independently discoveredthe scattering of galaxiesthe scattering of galaxiesthe scattering of galaxiesGeorgy Gamov realized in 1946 thatGeorgy Gamov realized in 1946 thatGeorgy Gamov realized in 1946 thatthe expanding universe in the past mustthe expanding universe in the past mustthe expanding universe in the past mustwas to be hot but only afterwas to be hot but only afterwas to be hot but only afterdiscoveries of penzias and wilson and cosmologydiscoveries of penzias and wilson and cosmologydiscoveries of penzias and wilson and cosmologythe big bang received universalthe big bang received universalthe big bang received universalrecognition among cosmologists andrecognition among cosmologists andrecognition among cosmologists andso two young radio astronomersso two young radio astronomersso two young radio astronomersaccidentally made an amazing discovery andaccidentally made an amazing discovery andaccidentally made an amazing discovery andArno Penzias and Robert Wilson calledArno Penzias and Robert Wilson calledArno Penzias and Robert Wilson calledIn 1965 they tried to useIn 1965 they tried to useIn 1965 they tried to uselarge communications antenna homelarge communications antenna homelarge communications antenna homein fact, the state of New Jersey belonged toin fact, the state of New Jersey belonged toin fact, the state of New Jersey belonged tothe company bell laboratories but workthe company bell laboratories but workthe company bell laboratories but workhampered by continuous background noisehampered by continuous background noisehampered by continuous background noiseconstantly and the hiss of dial-upconstantly and the hiss of dial-upconstantly and the hiss of dial-upimpossible to conduct experiments noiseimpossible to conduct experiments noiseimpossible to conduct experiments noisehe was constant and uniform he camehe was constant and uniform he camehe was constant and uniform he camefrom any point not both day and night infrom any point not both day and night infrom any point not both day and night inany time of the year all year round youngany time of the year all year round youngany time of the year all year round youngastronomers did everything possible toastronomers did everything possible toastronomers did everything possible tofind the source of the noise and eliminate itfind the source of the noise and eliminate itfind the source of the noise and eliminate ittested every electrical circuittested every electrical circuittested every electrical circuitthey were sorting through the equipment and spilled itthey were sorting through the equipment and spilled itthey were sorting through the equipment and spilled itthe contours were twisted, the wires were cleanedthe contours were twisted, the wires were cleanedthe contours were twisted, the wires were cleanedcontacts they climbed onto the platecontacts they climbed onto the platecontacts they climbed onto the plateantennas and taped each seamantennas and taped each seamantennas and taped each seamevery rivet they returned there withevery rivet they returned there withevery rivet they returned there withwith brooms and hard brushes and carefullywith brooms and hard brushes and carefullywith brooms and hard brushes and carefullycleaned up as they wrote later in the scientificcleaned up as they wrote later in the scientificcleaned up as they wrote later in the scientificarticle white dielectric substancearticle white dielectric substancearticle white dielectric substancewhich is commonly called bird'swhich is commonly called bird'swhich is commonly called bird'slitterlitterlitternothing helped them they had no idea thatnothing helped them they had no idea thatnothing helped them they had no idea thatjust 50 kilometers away from themjust 50 kilometers away from themjust 50 kilometers away from themPrinceton UniversityPrinceton UniversityPrinceton Universitya group of scientists led by robert diskeya group of scientists led by robert diskeya group of scientists led by robert diskeyI was struggling to find that oneI was struggling to find that oneI was struggling to find that onewhy did they try so hardwhy did they try so hardwhy did they try so hardget rid ofget rid ofget rid ofThe researchers from the port were developingThe researchers from the port were developingThe researchers from the port were developingideas put forward in the 1940sideas put forward in the 1940sideas put forward in the 1940sastrophysicist Georgy Gamov, a native ofastrophysicist Georgy Gamov, a native ofastrophysicist Georgy Gamov, a native ofRussia that if you look enoughRussia that if you look enoughRussia that if you look enoughdeep into space you can find itdeep into space you can find itdeep into space you can find itsome background cosmic radiationsome background cosmic radiationsome background cosmic radiationleft over from the big explosion of gamsleft over from the big explosion of gamsleft over from the big explosion of gamsit is calculated that by the time thisit is calculated that by the time thisit is calculated that by the time thisradiation will cross the cosmic expansesradiation will cross the cosmic expansesradiation will cross the cosmic expanseswhen it reaches the ground it will representwhen it reaches the ground it will representwhen it reaches the ground it will representby yourselfby yourselfby yourselfmicrowavemicrowavemicrowavea little later he even Georgy Gamova little later he even Georgy Gamova little later he even Georgy Gamovproposed a tool that couldproposed a tool that couldproposed a tool that couldregister the antenna with the companyregister the antenna with the companyregister the antenna with the companyBell of Home Labs unfortunatelyBell of Home Labs unfortunatelyBell of Home Labs unfortunatelynot penzias and wilson nor any ofnot penzias and wilson nor any ofnot penzias and wilson nor any ofmembers of the Princeton group did not read thismembers of the Princeton group did not read thismembers of the Princeton group did not read thisGamow's article, the noise that was heardGamow's article, the noise that was heardGamow's article, the noise that was heardPenzias and Wilson were certainly noisePenzias and Wilson were certainly noisePenzias and Wilson were certainly noisewho theoretically predicted Gamovwho theoretically predicted Gamovwho theoretically predicted Gamovthey discovered the edge of the universe orthey discovered the edge of the universe orthey discovered the edge of the universe orat least its visible part onat least its visible part onat least its visible part ondistance of more than 100 billiondistance of more than 100 billiondistance of more than 100 billiontrillions of kilometers they are in quotestrillions of kilometers they are in quotestrillions of kilometers they are in quotessaw the first photons the most ancient lightsaw the first photons the most ancient lightsaw the first photons the most ancient lightuniverse though time and distanceuniverse though time and distanceuniverse though time and distanceturned them as Gamov predictedturned them as Gamov predictedturned them as Gamov predictedmicrowavemicrowavemicrowavephotons were in the universe before but theyphotons were in the universe before but theyphotons were in the universe before but theycouldn't get through the hot densecouldn't get through the hot densecouldn't get through the hot densethe substance was constantly absorbed and perrythe substance was constantly absorbed and perrythe substance was constantly absorbed and perrywere emitted again only after aboutwere emitted again only after aboutwere emitted again only after about300,000 years after the Big Bang300,000 years after the Big Bang300,000 years after the Big BangUniverseUniverseUniversecooled enough for photonscooled enough for photonscooled enough for photonswere able to fly freely for billions of yearswere able to fly freely for billions of yearswere able to fly freely for billions of yearsspace until they are caught by the earthly onesspace until they are caught by the earthly onesspace until they are caught by the earthly onesleague detector expanding universeleague detector expanding universeleague detector expanding universeall in good give a helpful analogyall in good give a helpful analogyall in good give a helpful analogyput this discovery into perspectiveput this discovery into perspectiveput this discovery into perspectiveif you consider that you are looking intoif you consider that you are looking intoif you consider that you are looking intothe depths of the universe looking down 100 floorsthe depths of the universe looking down 100 floorsthe depths of the universe looking down 100 floorsempire state building where is the hundredth floorempire state building where is the hundredth floorempire state building where is the hundredth floorcorresponds to our time and the levelcorresponds to our time and the levelcorresponds to our time and the levelstreet at the moment of the big bang thenstreet at the moment of the big bang thenstreet at the moment of the big bang thenthe time of the discovery of wilson and penzias and the mostthe time of the discovery of wilson and penzias and the mostthe time of the discovery of wilson and penzias and the mostdistant galaxies have been discovered indistant galaxies have been discovered indistant galaxies have been discovered inin the area of the 60th floors and the most distantin the area of the 60th floors and the most distantin the area of the 60th floors and the most distantquasar objects somewhere around 20quasar objects somewhere around 20quasar objects somewhere around 20The discovery of Penzias and Wilson brought us toThe discovery of Penzias and Wilson brought us toThe discovery of Penzias and Wilson brought us toacquaintance with the visible universe to the heightsacquaintance with the visible universe to the heightsacquaintance with the visible universe to the heightshalf an inch from the basement floorhalf an inch from the basement floorhalf an inch from the basement floorstill not knowing the cause of the noise wilson spinstill not knowing the cause of the noise wilson spinstill not knowing the cause of the noise wilson spinI called Princeton kids myself andI called Princeton kids myself andI called Princeton kids myself anddescribed your problem to him, I hope that hedescribed your problem to him, I hope that hedescribed your problem to him, I hope that hewill tell you the solution kids immediately understood thatwill tell you the solution kids immediately understood thatwill tell you the solution kids immediately understood thatthese two young men discovered yesthese two young men discovered yesthese two young men discovered yesthe guys got ahead of us, he said to histhe guys got ahead of us, he said to histhe guys got ahead of us, he said to hishang up colleagues soonhang up colleagues soonhang up colleagues soonastrophysical journal published 2astrophysical journal published 2astrophysical journal published 2articles one penzias and wilson aarticles one penzias and wilson aarticles one penzias and wilson adescribing the experience of registering hissingdescribing the experience of registering hissingdescribing the experience of registering hissinganother viki group explained itanother viki group explained itanother viki group explained itnature, although Penzias and Wilson did not searchnature, although Penzias and Wilson did not searchnature, although Penzias and Wilson did not searchbackground cosmic radiation was not knownbackground cosmic radiation was not knownbackground cosmic radiation was not knownwhat is it when was it discovered and inwhat is it when was it discovered and inwhat is it when was it discovered and intheir article did not explain its naturetheir article did not explain its naturetheir article did not explain its natureIn 1978 they received the Nobel PrizeIn 1978 they received the Nobel PrizeIn 1978 they received the Nobel PrizePrize in Physics Pristanskie WePrize in Physics Pristanskie WePrize in Physics Pristanskie Wethe investigator received only sympathythe investigator received only sympathythe investigator received only sympathyaccording to Denisov and Verbai, the author of the bookaccording to Denisov and Verbai, the author of the bookaccording to Denisov and Verbai, the author of the booklonely hearts in space not penzias andlonely hearts in space not penzias andlonely hearts in space not penzias andWilson didn't fully understand the meaningWilson didn't fully understand the meaningWilson didn't fully understand the meaningwhat was opened until you read about itwhat was opened until you read about itwhat was opened until you read about itin the new york times by the way there is interference fromin the new york times by the way there is interference fromin the new york times by the way there is interference fromcosmic background radiation is thatcosmic background radiation is thatcosmic background radiation is thatwhat we all know from experience set up yourswhat we all know from experience set up yourswhat we all know from experience set up yoursTV on any channel where there is noTV on any channel where there is noTV on any channel where there is nobroadcasts and about one percentbroadcasts and about one percentbroadcasts and about one percentjumping electrostatic interferencejumping electrostatic interferencejumping electrostatic interferencewhich you see on the screen will bewhich you see on the screen will bewhich you see on the screen will beare associated with these ancient tracesare associated with these ancient tracesare associated with these ancient tracesbig bangbig bangbig bangnext time you complainnext time you complainnext time you complainthat there is nothing on the screen remember thatthat there is nothing on the screen remember thatthat there is nothing on the screen remember thatyou always have the opportunity to observeyou always have the opportunity to observeyou always have the opportunity to observebirth of the universebirth of the universebirth of the universealthough everyone calls it the big bangalthough everyone calls it the big bangalthough everyone calls it the big bangmany books warn us against thatmany books warn us against thatmany books warn us against thatto represent it as an explosion into represent it as an explosion into represent it as an explosion inIn the usual sense it was rather suddenIn the usual sense it was rather suddenIn the usual sense it was rather suddena significant expansion of the colossala significant expansion of the colossala significant expansion of the colossalscale so what caused it was one ofscale so what caused it was one ofscale so what caused it was one ofpoints of view is thatpoints of view is thatpoints of view is thatthe singularity was a relic of an earlier onethe singularity was a relic of an earlier onethe singularity was a relic of an earlier onerocks observation universe that oursrocks observation universe that oursrocks observation universe that oursUniverseUniverseUniversejust one of the eternal cyclejust one of the eternal cyclejust one of the eternal cycleexpanding and contracting universesexpanding and contracting universesexpanding and contracting universeslike a pneumatic chamberlike a pneumatic chamberlike a pneumatic chamberoxygen apparatus others explainoxygen apparatus others explainoxygen apparatus others explainthe big bang so called falsethe big bang so called falsethe big bang so called falsevacuum scalar field or vacuumvacuum scalar field or vacuumvacuum scalar field or vacuumenergy to some properties or essenceenergy to some properties or essenceenergy to some properties or essencewhich somehow brought inwhich somehow brought inwhich somehow brought ina certain instability in the existinga certain instability in the existinga certain instability in the existingplace of non-existence it seems to get somethingplace of non-existence it seems to get somethingplace of non-existence it seems to get somethingnothing is impossible but the fact isnothing is impossible but the fact isnothing is impossible but the fact isthat once there was nothing and nowthat once there was nothing and nowthat once there was nothing and nowthe universe is in the face and this is obviousthe universe is in the face and this is obviousthe universe is in the face and this is obviousproof of such possibilitiesproof of such possibilitiesproof of such possibilitiesmaybe our universe is justmaybe our universe is justmaybe our universe is justpart of a set of larger universespart of a set of larger universespart of a set of larger universeslocated in different dimensions andlocated in different dimensions andlocated in different dimensions andbig explosions happen all the time andbig explosions happen all the time andbig explosions happen all the time andeverywhere or possibly space andeverywhere or possibly space andeverywhere or possibly space andtime had before the big bangtime had before the big bangtime had before the big bangcompletely different forms too aliencompletely different forms too aliencompletely different forms too aliento our understanding and the big bang isto our understanding and the big bang isto our understanding and the big bang isa kind of transitional stage whena kind of transitional stage whena kind of transitional stage whenthe universe from a form incomprehensible to usthe universe from a form incomprehensible to usthe universe from a form incomprehensible to usare moving into a form that we can almostare moving into a form that we can almostare moving into a form that we can almostunderstandunderstandunderstandall this is very close to religiousall this is very close to religiousall this is very close to religiousquestions asked in 2001 by respondentsquestions asked in 2001 by respondentsquestions asked in 2001 by respondentsfor the New York Times cosmologist Andrey Lindefor the New York Times cosmologist Andrey Lindefor the New York Times cosmologist Andrey Lindethe big bang theory is not about the bang itselfthe big bang theory is not about the bang itselfthe big bang theory is not about the bang itselfand about what happened after the explosionand about what happened after the explosionand about what happened after the explosionand mostly soon after the explosionand mostly soon after the explosionand mostly soon after the explosionhaving made a lot of calculations and carefulhaving made a lot of calculations and carefulhaving made a lot of calculations and carefulobservations at elementary particle acceleratorsobservations at elementary particle acceleratorsobservations at elementary particle acceleratorsparticles, scientists believe that they canparticles, scientists believe that they canparticles, scientists believe that they cantake a look back in time just 10 minutes latertake a look back in time just 10 minutes latertake a look back in time just 10 minutes laterminus 43 seconds since creationminus 43 seconds since creationminus 43 seconds since creationwhen the universe was still so smallwhen the universe was still so smallwhen the universe was still so smallthat it could only be seen inthat it could only be seen inthat it could only be seen inmicroscopemicroscopemicroscopewe shouldn't faint at everywe shouldn't faint at everywe shouldn't faint at everyan unusual number that we encounter butan unusual number that we encounter butan unusual number that we encounter butperhaps it's worth it from time to timeperhaps it's worth it from time to timeperhaps it's worth it from time to timegrab hold of one of them at least forgrab hold of one of them at least forgrab hold of one of them at least forin order to remind them of their incomprehensiblein order to remind them of their incomprehensiblein order to remind them of their incomprehensibleand amazing values like 10 to minus 43and amazing values like 10 to minus 43and amazing values like 10 to minus 43it's 1 10 million to a trillionit's 1 10 million to a trillionit's 1 10 million to a trilliontrillionth of a secondtrillionth of a secondtrillionth of a secondmost of what we know ormost of what we know ormost of what we know orwe think we know in the first momentswe think we know in the first momentswe think we know in the first momentsthe universe follows from the conceptsthe universe follows from the conceptsthe universe follows from the conceptsdubbeddubbeddubbedinflation theoryinflation theoryinflation theorywhich was first proposed atwhich was first proposed atwhich was first proposed atdiscussion indiscussion indiscussion in1979 as a specialist in elementary1979 as a specialist in elementary1979 as a specialist in elementaryparticles as a junior research fellowparticles as a junior research fellowparticles as a junior research fellowStanford University Alan GuthStanford University Alan GuthStanford University Alan Guthcurrently working in Massachusettscurrently working in Massachusettscurrently working in Massachusettshe was then at the Technological Institutehe was then at the Technological Institutehe was then at the Technological Institute32 years old and by his own admission32 years old and by his own admission32 years old and by his own admissionI've never done anything like this seriously beforeI've never done anything like this seriously beforeI've never done anything like this seriously beforehe might have never done ithe might have never done ithe might have never done itput forward his remarkable theory ifput forward his remarkable theory ifput forward his remarkable theory ifI wouldn't have accidentally ended up at a big lectureI wouldn't have accidentally ended up at a big lectureI wouldn't have accidentally ended up at a big lectureexplosion read by none other thanexplosion read by none other thanexplosion read by none other thanRobert kids lecture awakened yeah yeahRobert kids lecture awakened yeah yeahRobert kids lecture awakened yeah yeahinterest in cosmology, especiallyinterest in cosmology, especiallyinterest in cosmology, especiallythe question of the birth of the universe as a resultthe question of the birth of the universe as a resultthe question of the birth of the universe as a resultinflation theory appearedinflation theory appearedinflation theory appearedaccording to which the universe has undergoneaccording to which the universe has undergoneaccording to which the universe has undergonesudden and strikingsudden and strikingsudden and strikingexpansion it swelled actuallyexpansion it swelled actuallyexpansion it swelled actuallyrunning away from myself doubled inrunning away from myself doubled inrunning away from myself doubled insizes every 10 to minus thirtysizes every 10 to minus thirtysizes every 10 to minus thirtyfourth degree of a second the whole episodefourth degree of a second the whole episodefourth degree of a second the whole episodeit may have continued for more than 10 minusit may have continued for more than 10 minusit may have continued for more than 10 minus30 seconds is 1 million to a million30 seconds is 1 million to a million30 seconds is 1 million to a millionmillion to million to millionth partmillion to million to millionth partmillion to million to millionth partseconds here he turned the universeseconds here he turned the universeseconds here he turned the universethat would fit in your hand in no timethat would fit in your hand in no timethat would fit in your hand in no timewhich is at least ten millionwhich is at least ten millionwhich is at least ten millionbillions of millions of billions of timesbillions of millions of billions of timesbillions of millions of billions of timesmore and the inflation theory explainsmore and the inflation theory explainsmore and the inflation theory explainsthe appearance of ripples and swirls in the universethe appearance of ripples and swirls in the universethe appearance of ripples and swirls in the universewho made ours what we arewho made ours what we arewho made ours what we arewe know that without them the clots would not have formedwe know that without them the clots would not have formedwe know that without them the clots would not have formedmatter and therefore stars and would bematter and therefore stars and would bematter and therefore stars and would beonly gas and eternal darkness according to the theoryonly gas and eternal darkness according to the theoryonly gas and eternal darkness according to the theoryguda for one 10 million per trillion perguda for one 10 million per trillion perguda for one 10 million per trillion pertrillion by trillionth of a second arosetrillion by trillionth of a second arosetrillion by trillionth of a second arosegravity is another ridiculousgravity is another ridiculousgravity is another ridiculousa short period of time to hera short period of time to hera short period of time to herelectromagnetism joined in as wellelectromagnetism joined in as wellelectromagnetism joined in as wellstrong weak nuclear forcestrong weak nuclear forcestrong weak nuclear forcethe main toys of physicists in a momentthe main toys of physicists in a momentthe main toys of physicists in a momentlater, clusters were added to themlater, clusters were added to themlater, clusters were added to themelementary particles toys of these toyselementary particles toys of these toyselementary particles toys of these toysout of nowhere, clouds suddenly appearedout of nowhere, clouds suddenly appearedout of nowhere, clouds suddenly appearedphotons protons electrons neutrons andphotons protons electrons neutrons andphotons protons electrons neutrons andmany other particles in quantitymany other particles in quantitymany other particles in quantitysomewhere between 10 in 79 and 1080 ninthsomewhere between 10 in 79 and 1080 ninthsomewhere between 10 in 79 and 1080 ninththe degrees of each type are approximately like thisthe degrees of each type are approximately like thisthe degrees of each type are approximately like thisdescribes the generally accepted theory of the bigdescribes the generally accepted theory of the bigdescribes the generally accepted theory of the bigexplosionexplosionexplosionimagine such huge numbersimagine such huge numbersimagine such huge numbersof course it is not enough to just knowof course it is not enough to just knowof course it is not enough to just knowthat in one loud and instant we were giftedthat in one loud and instant we were giftedthat in one loud and instant we were giftedthere are at least a hundred of such a huge universethere are at least a hundred of such a huge universethere are at least a hundred of such a huge universebillions of light years acrossbillions of light years acrossbillions of light years acrossaccording to theory, although much more is possibleaccording to theory, although much more is possibleaccording to theory, although much more is possiblelarge sizes up to infinitylarge sizes up to infinitylarge sizes up to infinityand this universe is perfectly adaptedand this universe is perfectly adaptedand this universe is perfectly adaptedto create stars, galaxies and otherto create stars, galaxies and otherto create stars, galaxies and othercomplex systems which is surprising with ourcomplex systems which is surprising with ourcomplex systems which is surprising with ourfrom the point of view it's how successful everything isfrom the point of view it's how successful everything isfrom the point of view it's how successful everything isit turned out for us if the universeit turned out for us if the universeit turned out for us if the universeseemed a little different if gravityseemed a little different if gravityseemed a little different if gravitywas a little stronger or weakerwas a little stronger or weakerwas a little stronger or weakerif only the neck and leaked a littleif only the neck and leaked a littleif only the neck and leaked a littleslower or faster then maybe notslower or faster then maybe notslower or faster then maybe notthere would be stable elements of whichthere would be stable elements of whichthere would be stable elements of whichwe are with you and the land on which we arewe are with you and the land on which we arewe are with you and the land on which we arewe walkwe walkwe walkif gravity were a little stronger andif gravity were a little stronger andif gravity were a little stronger andthe universe would collapse in on itself likethe universe would collapse in on itself likethe universe would collapse in on itself likea poorly pitched tent not reachinga poorly pitched tent not reachinga poorly pitched tent not reachingof the proper dimensions, density and compositionof the proper dimensions, density and compositionof the proper dimensions, density and compositionbut if gravity were weakerbut if gravity were weakerbut if gravity were weakerthere would be no condensation of matter andthere would be no condensation of matter andthere would be no condensation of matter andthe universe would remain forever dullthe universe would remain forever dullthe universe would remain forever dullscattered emptiness in this is one ofscattered emptiness in this is one ofscattered emptiness in this is one ofreasons why some expertsreasons why some expertsreasons why some expertsthey think there could be many othersthey think there could be many othersthey think there could be many othersthere may be trillions of big bangs andthere may be trillions of big bangs andthere may be trillions of big bangs andtrillionstrillionstrillionsscattered across the vastness of eternity and wescattered across the vastness of eternity and wescattered across the vastness of eternity and wewe exist precisely in this particularwe exist precisely in this particularwe exist precisely in this particularthe universe because we can existthe universe because we can existthe universe because we can existonly here as edward once notedonly here as edward once notedonly here as edward once notedarea from columbia university inarea from columbia university inarea from columbia university inthe answer to the question why did this happen is methe answer to the question why did this happen is methe answer to the question why did this happen is meI offer a modest suggestion that ourI offer a modest suggestion that ourI offer a modest suggestion that ourthe universe is just one of those thatthe universe is just one of those thatthe universe is just one of those thatfrom time to time they appear and go to thisfrom time to time they appear and go to thisfrom time to time they appear and go to thisadds although the birth of the universe canadds although the birth of the universe canadds although the birth of the universe canbe extremely unlikely to be three hebe extremely unlikely to be three hebe extremely unlikely to be three heemphasized that no one consideredemphasized that no one consideredemphasized that no one consideredsuccessful attemptssuccessful attemptssuccessful attemptsBritish Astronomer Royal MartinBritish Astronomer Royal MartinBritish Astronomer Royal MartinReese believes that there are manyReese believes that there are manyReese believes that there are manyan infinite number of universes are possiblean infinite number of universes are possiblean infinite number of universes are possiblewith different properties of differentwith different properties of differentwith different properties of differentcombinations and that we simply live in onecombinations and that we simply live in onecombinations and that we simply live in oneof which where things are combined in such a wayof which where things are combined in such a wayof which where things are combined in such a waywhich allows us to existwhich allows us to existwhich allows us to existdraws an analogy with a very largedraws an analogy with a very largedraws an analogy with a very largeclothing store if there is a wide rangeclothing store if there is a wide rangeclothing store if there is a wide rangethe range will not surprise you what you will findthe range will not surprise you what you will findthe range will not surprise you what you will finda suitable suit if it existsa suitable suit if it existsa suitable suit if it existsa multitude of universes, each of whicha multitude of universes, each of whicha multitude of universes, each of whichcontrolled by its own set of parameterscontrolled by its own set of parameterscontrolled by its own set of parametersamong them there will be at least one in whichamong them there will be at least one in whichamong them there will be at least one in whicha special set of parameters was implementeda special set of parameters was implementeda special set of parameters was implementedsuitable for life we are like thissuitable for life we are like thissuitable for life we are like thisuniverseuniverseuniverserice claims that there are 6 valuesrice claims that there are 6 valuesrice claims that there are 6 valueswhich basically definewhich basically definewhich basically defineproperties of our universe and if anyproperties of our universe and if anyproperties of our universe and if anyof these values at least a littleof these values at least a littleof these values at least a littlethings would have gone completely differently if they had changedthings would have gone completely differently if they had changedthings would have gone completely differently if they had changedas now for example for existenceas now for example for existenceas now for example for existencethe universe as it isthe universe as it isthe universe as it isit is required that hydrogen is converted intoit is required that hydrogen is converted intoit is required that hydrogen is converted intohelium is strictly defined and veryhelium is strictly defined and veryhelium is strictly defined and veryin a leisurely manner, namely, so that whenin a leisurely manner, namely, so that whenin a leisurely manner, namely, so that whenin this case 7 thousandths of the mass were transferred intoin this case 7 thousandths of the mass were transferred intoin this case 7 thousandths of the mass were transferred intoenergy slightly to demolish that value let's sayenergy slightly to demolish that value let's sayenergy slightly to demolish that value let's sayfrom 7 thousandths to 6 thousandths andfrom 7 thousandths to 6 thousandths andfrom 7 thousandths to 6 thousandths andthe transformation will not happen universethe transformation will not happen universethe transformation will not happen universewill contain only hydrogen and nothing elsewill contain only hydrogen and nothing elsewill contain only hydrogen and nothing elsemore slightly increase it to eightmore slightly increase it to eightmore slightly increase it to eightthousands and the reactions would be so violent thatthousands and the reactions would be so violent thatthousands and the reactions would be so violent thathydrogen would have run out in both long agohydrogen would have run out in both long agohydrogen would have run out in both long agoin some cases the slightest change in the values of thisin some cases the slightest change in the values of thisin some cases the slightest change in the values of thisthe universe we know and what we knowthe universe we know and what we knowthe universe we know and what we knowit just shouldn't have been saidit just shouldn't have been saidit just shouldn't have been saidthat so far everything is going as it should but inthat so far everything is going as it should but inthat so far everything is going as it should but inlong term gravitylong term gravitylong term gravitymay be a little stronger than necessarymay be a little stronger than necessarymay be a little stronger than necessaryone day she might stopone day she might stopone day she might stopthe expansion of the universe and will cause it tothe expansion of the universe and will cause it tothe expansion of the universe and will cause it toshrink until again nifty filmed inshrink until again nifty filmed inshrink until again nifty filmed insingularity to possibly start the wholesingularity to possibly start the wholesingularity to possibly start the wholethe process again from the other sidethe process again from the other sidethe process again from the other sidegravity may be too muchgravity may be too muchgravity may be too muchweak and in this case the universe will beweak and in this case the universe will beweak and in this case the universe will beexpand forever until everything is thereexpand forever until everything is thereexpand forever until everything is thereso far from each other that notso far from each other that notso far from each other that notthere will be no opportunity left forthere will be no opportunity left forthere will be no opportunity left forinteractions of matter and the universeinteractions of matter and the universeinteractions of matter and the universewill become very spacious but inert andwill become very spacious but inert andwill become very spacious but inert andlifeless place third possibilitylifeless place third possibilitylifeless place third possibilityis that gravity seemsis that gravity seemsis that gravity seemsperfectly tuned by cosmologists forperfectly tuned by cosmologists forperfectly tuned by cosmologists forThis is the term critical densityThis is the term critical densityThis is the term critical densityin this case gravity will holdin this case gravity will holdin this case gravity will holdthe universe just the right sizethe universe just the right sizethe universe just the right sizeto give the opportunity to the establishedto give the opportunity to the establishedto give the opportunity to the establishedthe order of things will continue foreverthe order of things will continue foreverthe order of things will continue foreverthis is not the case in the case of critical densitythis is not the case in the case of critical densitythis is not the case in the case of critical densitythe universe will also be infinitethe universe will also be infinitethe universe will also be infiniteexpand and eventually become empty butexpand and eventually become empty butexpand and eventually become empty butit will happen slower thanit will happen slower thanit will happen slower thanlow gravity modelslow gravity modelslow gravity modelsstatistical model of the universe whichstatistical model of the universe whichstatistical model of the universe whichwould stop expanding and would not becomewould stop expanding and would not becomewould stop expanding and would not becomecontraction big bang cosmology notcontraction big bang cosmology notcontraction big bang cosmology notsuggestssuggestssuggestscosmologists bright moments sometimescosmologists bright moments sometimescosmologists bright moments sometimesThey call it fine-tuningThey call it fine-tuningThey call it fine-tuningparametersparametersparametersI mean that everything is supposedly correctI mean that everything is supposedly correctI mean that everything is supposedly correctfor reference these are three possible universesfor reference these are three possible universesfor reference these are three possible universesare known respectively as closed andare known respectively as closed andare known respectively as closed andopen and flat and now the questionopen and flat and now the questionopen and flat and now the questionwhich at some point arose inwhich at some point arose inwhich at some point arose ineach of us what will happen if we get thereeach of us what will happen if we get thereeach of us what will happen if we get thereto stick out to the edge of the universe, so to speakto stick out to the edge of the universe, so to speakto stick out to the edge of the universe, so to speakhead behind the curtain where the head will behead behind the curtain where the head will behead behind the curtain where the head will beif it is no longer in the universeif it is no longer in the universeif it is no longer in the universewhat we will see beyond its boundaries is the answerwhat we will see beyond its boundaries is the answerwhat we will see beyond its boundaries is the answerdisappointing you will never get theredisappointing you will never get theredisappointing you will never get thereto the edge of the universe and not even becauseto the edge of the universe and not even becauseto the edge of the universe and not even becauseit takes too long to get there thoughit takes too long to get there thoughit takes too long to get there thoughof course so but because if youof course so but because if youof course so but because if youmoved further and further in a straight linemoved further and further in a straight linemoved further and further in a straight linelineslineslinesstubborn infinitely long it's all the samestubborn infinitely long it's all the samestubborn infinitely long it's all the samewould never have reached the outer borderwould never have reached the outer borderwould never have reached the outer borderinstead you would go back to where you came frominstead you would go back to where you came frominstead you would go back to where you came fromif you went here you would probably fallif you went here you would probably fallif you went here you would probably fallin spirit and abandoned this ideain spirit and abandoned this ideain spirit and abandoned this ideaThis is explained by the fact that the universeThis is explained by the fact that the universeThis is explained by the fact that the universebends in a special way whichbends in a special way whichbends in a special way whichit is impossible to properly represent init is impossible to properly represent init is impossible to properly represent inin accordance with the theory of relativityin accordance with the theory of relativityin accordance with the theory of relativityEinstein and they and we in our timeEinstein and they and we in our timeEinstein and they and we in our timelet's talk, but for now it's enough to know that welet's talk, but for now it's enough to know that welet's talk, but for now it's enough to know that wewe are not swimming in some hugewe are not swimming in some hugewe are not swimming in some hugeinflating msia bubble spaceinflating msia bubble spaceinflating msia bubble spacebent in such a way that it remainsbent in such a way that it remainsbent in such a way that it remainsboundless but finiteboundless but finiteboundless but finitefiniteness means that the volume of the universefiniteness means that the volume of the universefiniteness means that the volume of the universecan be expressed in some way, albeit verycan be expressed in some way, albeit verycan be expressed in some way, albeit veryit's a large but specific numberit's a large but specific numberit's a large but specific numberOnly closed model possibleOnly closed model possibleOnly closed model possibleuniverse in open flat modelsuniverse in open flat modelsuniverse in open flat modelsthe volume of the universe is infinite and in no onethe volume of the universe is infinite and in no onethe volume of the universe is infinite and in no oneIn this case the universe has no edge or borderIn this case the universe has no edge or borderIn this case the universe has no edge or borderin spacein spacein spacestrictly speaking it's not even correctstrictly speaking it's not even correctstrictly speaking it's not even correctto claim that space is expandingto claim that space is expandingto claim that space is expandingbecause, as the laureate notes,because, as the laureate notes,because, as the laureate notes,Nobel Prize physicist Steven WeinbergNobel Prize physicist Steven WeinbergNobel Prize physicist Steven Weinbergthe solar system and galaxies are notthe solar system and galaxies are notthe solar system and galaxies are notexpand and space itself does notexpand and space itself does notexpand and space itself does notgalaxies are expanding, rather they are running awaygalaxies are expanding, rather they are running awaygalaxies are expanding, rather they are running awayall this seems to defy intuitionall this seems to defy intuitionall this seems to defy intuitionor as he once famously notedor as he once famously notedor as he once famously notedfamous biologist haldane universe notfamous biologist haldane universe notfamous biologist haldane universe notonly more unusual than usonly more unusual than usonly more unusual than uswe assume that it is unusual in no waywe assume that it is unusual in no waywe assume that it is unusual in no waywe can assume for explanationwe can assume for explanationwe can assume for explanationcurvatures of space are usually givencurvatures of space are usually givencurvatures of space are usually givennext analogy trynext analogy trynext analogy tryimagine the inhabitants of the universe are flatimagine the inhabitants of the universe are flatimagine the inhabitants of the universe are flatsurfaces that have never been seensurfaces that have never been seensurfaces that have never been seenball and hit the ground no matter how much itball and hit the ground no matter how much itball and hit the ground no matter how much ithe wandered along the surface of the planet and still didn'the wandered along the surface of the planet and still didn'the wandered along the surface of the planet and still didn'the would have discovered the edges eventuallyhe would have discovered the edges eventuallyhe would have discovered the edges eventuallyI would go back to where I startedI would go back to where I startedI would go back to where I startedthe path is completely confused so here it isthe path is completely confused so here it isthe path is completely confused so here it isin relation to space we find ourselves inin relation to space we find ourselves inin relation to space we find ourselves inin the same position as our puzzledin the same position as our puzzledin the same position as our puzzledflatland only brings us toflatland only brings us toflatland only brings us toembarrassmentembarrassmentembarrassmentmore dimensionsmore dimensionsmore dimensionsjust as there is no place where you canjust as there is no place where you canjust as there is no place where you canfind the edge of the universe there is no center wherefind the edge of the universe there is no center wherefind the edge of the universe there is no center whereyou can stand up and say that's all from hereyou can stand up and say that's all from hereyou can stand up and say that's all from hereit began here is the very center of all that exists weit began here is the very center of all that exists weit began here is the very center of all that exists weeverything is in the center of it all thougheverything is in the center of it all thougheverything is in the center of it all thoughin reality we don't know thisin reality we don't know thisin reality we don't know thiswe can't prove it for surewe can't prove it for surewe can't prove it for sureMathematicians simply proceed fromMathematicians simply proceed fromMathematicians simply proceed fromthat we cannot be the centerthat we cannot be the centerthat we cannot be the centeruniverse you just imagineuniverse you just imagineuniverse you just imaginewhat it meant and therefore the phenomenonwhat it meant and therefore the phenomenonwhat it meant and therefore the phenomenonshould be the same for everyoneshould be the same for everyoneshould be the same for everyoneobservers in all places and yetobservers in all places and yetobservers in all places and yetwe don't know for sure for uswe don't know for sure for uswe don't know for sure for usthe universe extends into the distancethe universe extends into the distancethe universe extends into the distancewhich covered the light over billions of yearswhich covered the light over billions of yearswhich covered the light over billions of yearstime its formation is visibletime its formation is visibletime its formation is visiblethe universe the universe that we know aboutthe universe the universe that we know aboutthe universe the universe that we know aboutwhich we can speak has inwhich we can speak has inwhich we can speak has inin diameter of the order of a million millionin diameter of the order of a million millionin diameter of the order of a million millionmillion million kilometers ten inmillion million kilometers ten inmillion million kilometers ten intwenty-fourth degree but according totwenty-fourth degree but according totwenty-fourth degree but according tomost theories the universe as a wholemost theories the universe as a wholemost theories the universe as a wholemeta universe as I sometimes call itmeta universe as I sometimes call itmeta universe as I sometimes call itmuch more spacious rice thinks that the numbermuch more spacious rice thinks that the numbermuch more spacious rice thinks that the numberlight years in circumference of this largelight years in circumference of this largelight years in circumference of this largethe visible universe expressed you not tenthe visible universe expressed you not tenthe visible universe expressed you not tenzeros, not even hundreds of zeros, but millionszeros, not even hundreds of zeros, but millionszeros, not even hundreds of zeros, but millionsthe space is much larger than the pilafthe space is much larger than the pilafthe space is much larger than the pilafyou can imagine without bothering yourselfyou can imagine without bothering yourselfyou can imagine without bothering yourselfattempts to achieve something even moreattempts to achieve something even moreattempts to achieve something even moreotherworldly long time theoryotherworldly long time theoryotherworldly long time theorythe big bang had one rushing intothe big bang had one rushing intothe big bang had one rushing intoeyes gap disturbing many peopleeyes gap disturbing many peopleeyes gap disturbing many peoplenamely, she couldn't explain hownamely, she couldn't explain hownamely, she couldn't explain howthis is where we ended upthis is where we ended upthis is where we ended upalthough 98 percent of existing matteralthough 98 percent of existing matteralthough 98 percent of existing matterthis matter was created by the big bangthis matter was created by the big bangthis matter was created by the big bangconsisted exclusively of light gasesconsisted exclusively of light gasesconsisted exclusively of light gaseshydrogen gel and fly what we alreadyhydrogen gel and fly what we alreadyhydrogen gel and fly what we alreadynot a single particle of heavy metal was mentionednot a single particle of heavy metal was mentionednot a single particle of heavy metal was mentionedelements so necessary for ourelements so necessary for ourelements so necessary for ourexistenceexistenceexistencecarbon nitrogen oxygen all otherscarbon nitrogen oxygen all otherscarbon nitrogen oxygen all othersdid not arise from the gas boiler of creationdid not arise from the gas boiler of creationdid not arise from the gas boiler of creationhowever, this is also where the difficulty lieshowever, this is also where the difficulty lieshowever, this is also where the difficulty liesto forge these heavy elementsto forge these heavy elementsto forge these heavy elementsheat and energy required comparable toheat and energy required comparable toheat and energy required comparable tothe biggest bang but was onlythe biggest bang but was onlythe biggest bang but was onlyone big bang and it didn't produce theseone big bang and it didn't produce theseone big bang and it didn't produce theseelements then where did they come fromelements then where did they come fromelements then where did they come fromI wonder what the person who found the answer wasI wonder what the person who found the answer wasI wonder what the person who found the answer wasThere was a cosmologist who answered this questionThere was a cosmologist who answered this questionThere was a cosmologist who answered this questionsouls despised the big bang theory andsouls despised the big bang theory andsouls despised the big bang theory andI came up with this name myself as a jokeI came up with this name myself as a jokeI came up with this name myself as a jokewe'll talk about it soonwe'll talk about it soonwe'll talk about it soonmore detailsmore detailsmore detailsbut before we return to the question ofbut before we return to the question ofbut before we return to the question ofhow we ended up here would be nicehow we ended up here would be nicehow we ended up here would be nicetake a few minutes to think about wheretake a few minutes to think about wheretake a few minutes to think about whereexactly this is here in ourexactly this is here in ourexactly this is here in ourdays astronomers can do the mostdays astronomers can do the mostdays astronomers can do the mostamazing things if someoneamazing things if someoneamazing things if someonestruck it with a match they couldstruck it with a match they couldstruck it with a match they couldto see this flash at the mostto see this flash at the mostto see this flash at the mostminor pulsations of distantminor pulsations of distantminor pulsations of distantstars they can draw conclusions about the sizesstars they can draw conclusions about the sizesstars they can draw conclusions about the sizesproperties and even potentialproperties and even potentialproperties and even potentialhabitability of planets too distant tohabitability of planets too distant tohabitability of planets too distant toit's hard to see them so far awayit's hard to see them so far awayit's hard to see them so far awayit would take half a million years toit would take half a million years toit would take half a million years toget there on an interplanetary shipget there on an interplanetary shipget there on an interplanetary shipwith their radio telescopes they canwith their radio telescopes they canwith their radio telescopes they canto catch radiation so weak andto catch radiation so weak andto catch radiation so weak andwhat is the total amount of energy receivedwhat is the total amount of energy receivedwhat is the total amount of energy receivedbeyond the solar system sincebeyond the solar system sincebeyond the solar system sinceradio surveillance beganradio surveillance beganradio surveillance began1951 on all instruments taken1951 on all instruments taken1951 on all instruments takentogethertogethertogetheraccording to carl saganaccording to carl saganaccording to carl saganAmerican astronomer less thanAmerican astronomer less thanAmerican astronomer less thanenergy 1 fallen to the groundenergy 1 fallen to the groundenergy 1 fallen to the groundsnowflakes in a word in the universe happenssnowflakes in a word in the universe happenssnowflakes in a word in the universe happensThere's not much that astronomers don't knowThere's not much that astronomers don't knowThere's not much that astronomers don't knowcould have found it if they wanted tocould have found it if they wanted tocould have found it if they wanted towhat's more surprising is that beforewhat's more surprising is that beforewhat's more surprising is that before1978 no one noticed that Pluto1978 no one noticed that Pluto1978 no one noticed that Plutothere is a satellite in the summer of that year youngthere is a satellite in the summer of that year youngthere is a satellite in the summer of that year youngAstronomer James Christie of the ObservatoryAstronomer James Christie of the ObservatoryAstronomer James Christie of the ObservatoryUS Navy go like and putUS Navy go like and putUS Navy go like and putstate of arizona browsingstate of arizona browsingstate of arizona browsingphotographic images of plutophotographic images of plutophotographic images of plutosuddenly noticed that there was something else theresuddenly noticed that there was something else theresuddenly noticed that there was something else thereblurred unclear but definite but andblurred unclear but definite but andblurred unclear but definite but andthan Pluto itselfthan Pluto itselfthan Pluto itselfafter consulting with colleague Robertafter consulting with colleague Robertafter consulting with colleague RobertHarrington he came to the conclusion that it wasHarrington he came to the conclusion that it wasHarrington he came to the conclusion that it wassatellite and not just any satellitesatellite and not just any satellitesatellite and not just any satelliterelative to his planets he was the mostrelative to his planets he was the mostrelative to his planets he was the mosta large satellite in the solar systema large satellite in the solar systema large satellite in the solar systemin reality it was a kind ofin reality it was a kind ofin reality it was a kind ofa blow to Pluto's status as a planeta blow to Pluto's status as a planeta blow to Pluto's status as a planetstatus that was never particularlystatus that was never particularlystatus that was never particularlysolid because the place occupiedsolid because the place occupiedsolid because the place occupiedsatellite and the place occupied by Plutosatellite and the place occupied by Plutosatellite and the place occupied by PlutoPreviously it was considered one whole, now it isPreviously it was considered one whole, now it isPreviously it was considered one whole, now it ismeant that pluto was much smaller thanmeant that pluto was much smaller thanmeant that pluto was much smaller thanPreviously, they believed that it was even smaller than mercuryPreviously, they believed that it was even smaller than mercuryPreviously, they believed that it was even smaller than mercuryMoreover, the solar system is sevenMoreover, the solar system is sevenMoreover, the solar system is sevensatellites including our moon are superiorsatellites including our moon are superiorsatellites including our moon are superiorpluto by size naturally occurspluto by size naturally occurspluto by size naturally occursthe question is why in our ownthe question is why in our ownthe question is why in our ownthe solar system couldn't do it for so longthe solar system couldn't do it for so longthe solar system couldn't do it for so longfind this satellite answer is related parts withfind this satellite answer is related parts withfind this satellite answer is related parts withwhere astronomers aim theirswhere astronomers aim theirswhere astronomers aim theirstools partly for whattools partly for whattools partly for whatfor these purposes they are designed partly withfor these purposes they are designed partly withfor these purposes they are designed partly withfeatures of Pluto itself, but most importantlyfeatures of Pluto itself, but most importantlyfeatures of Pluto itself, but most importantlythis is where the instrument is directedthis is where the instrument is directedthis is where the instrument is directedin the words of astronomer Clark Chapmanin the words of astronomer Clark Chapmanin the words of astronomer Clark ChapmanMost people think that astronomersMost people think that astronomersMost people think that astronomerscome to the observatory at night andcome to the observatory at night andcome to the observatory at night andlooking at the sky is not so almost alllooking at the sky is not so almost alllooking at the sky is not so almost allthe world's largest telescope andthe world's largest telescope andthe world's largest telescope andare designed to peer into tinyare designed to peer into tinyare designed to peer into tinyarea of the sky to see a quasar in the distancearea of the sky to see a quasar in the distancearea of the sky to see a quasar in the distanceor hunt for black holes oror hunt for black holes oror hunt for black holes ortake a detailed look at the distanttake a detailed look at the distanttake a detailed look at the distantgalaxygalaxygalaxythe only existing networkthe only existing networkthe only existing networktelescopestelescopestelescopesscanning the sky is designed andscanning the sky is designed andscanning the sky is designed andbuilt by the militarybuilt by the militarybuilt by the militaryin fact, many observatoriesin fact, many observatoriesin fact, many observatoriesare working on compiling the so-calledare working on compiling the so-calledare working on compiling the so-calledreviews of the sky in different rangesreviews of the sky in different rangesreviews of the sky in different rangesradiationradiationradiationusually special ones are built for this purposeusually special ones are built for this purposeusually special ones are built for this purposea telescope that systematicallya telescope that systematicallya telescope that systematicallysquare by square removes everythingsquare by square removes everythingsquare by square removes everythingaccessible and observable sky beforeaccessible and observable sky beforeaccessible and observable sky beforeThe review usually took many monthsThe review usually took many monthsThe review usually took many monthssometimes and years have been stormy latelysometimes and years have been stormy latelysometimes and years have been stormy latelyWide-angle networks are developingWide-angle networks are developingWide-angle networks are developingtelescopes robots which is coming soontelescopes robots which is coming soontelescopes robots which is coming soonwill be able to view the entire night skywill be able to view the entire night skywill be able to view the entire night skyFor several days we were spoiled by drawingsFor several days we were spoiled by drawingsFor several days we were spoiled by drawingsartists and imagine clarityartists and imagine clarityartists and imagine clarityresolution of the pictures as they actually areresolution of the pictures as they actually areresolution of the pictures as they actually arein fact in astronomy there is no pluto in the picturein fact in astronomy there is no pluto in the picturein fact in astronomy there is no pluto in the picturebaptizes dimly blurred as a shredbaptizes dimly blurred as a shredbaptizes dimly blurred as a shredspace cotton wool and its satellite is not at allspace cotton wool and its satellite is not at allspace cotton wool and its satellite is not at alllooks like a romantic illuminatedlooks like a romantic illuminatedlooks like a romantic illuminateda sharply defined ball as you would seea sharply defined ball as you would seea sharply defined ball as you would seein the picture in our but geographic ratherin the picture in our but geographic ratherin the picture in our but geographic ratherthis is a barely noticeable, vague hint at something elsethis is a barely noticeable, vague hint at something elsethis is a barely noticeable, vague hint at something elseone cloudy spot she was beforeone cloudy spot she was beforeone cloudy spot she was beforeit was not clear that seven more were neededit was not clear that seven more were neededit was not clear that seven more were neededyears for at least someone to find it againyears for at least someone to find it againyears for at least someone to find it againsatellite and thus independentlysatellite and thus independentlysatellite and thus independentlyconfirmed its existence interestingly enoughconfirmed its existence interestingly enoughconfirmed its existence interestingly enoughChristie made his discovery in flacChristie made his discovery in flacChristie made his discovery in flacput it here because it was here in 1930put it here because it was here in 1930put it here because it was here in 1930Pluto itself was discovered for the first timePluto itself was discovered for the first timePluto itself was discovered for the first timesignificant events for astronomysignificant events for astronomysignificant events for astronomyis largely due tois largely due tois largely due toastronomer percival lower lowellastronomer percival lower lowellastronomer percival lower lowellcame from one of the oldest andcame from one of the oldest andcame from one of the oldest andthe richest boss of the low families of the samethe richest boss of the low families of the samethe richest boss of the low families of the samewhich is sung in a famous song thatwhich is sung in a famous song thatwhich is sung in a famous song thatboston is the birthplace of beans and weirdos whereboston is the birthplace of beans and weirdos whereboston is the birthplace of beans and weirdos whereLowell and talk only to hoovesLowell and talk only to hoovesLowell and talk only to hoovesand you only financed it with Godand you only financed it with Godand you only financed it with Godthe creation of the famous observatory namedthe creation of the famous observatory namedthe creation of the famous observatory namedhis name but the most indelible memory ofhis name but the most indelible memory ofhis name but the most indelible memory ofhe left it to himself thanks to the hypothesis thathe left it to himself thanks to the hypothesis thathe left it to himself thanks to the hypothesis thatthat mars is covered with canals builtthat mars is covered with canals builtthat mars is covered with canals builtby hardworking Martians with the purpose ofby hardworking Martians with the purpose ofby hardworking Martians with the purpose oftransfer of water from the polar regions totransfer of water from the polar regions totransfer of water from the polar regions toarid but fertile lands closer toarid but fertile lands closer toarid but fertile lands closer toequatorequatorequatorLowell himself was actively conducting observations inLowell himself was actively conducting observations inLowell himself was actively conducting observations inhis observatoryhis observatoryhis observatoryalthough channels on mars found in quotesalthough channels on mars found in quotesalthough channels on mars found in quotesnot him but the Italian astronomer Giovanninot him but the Italian astronomer Giovanninot him but the Italian astronomer GiovanniSchiaparelli was the one who firmly tied LowellSchiaparelli was the one who firmly tied LowellSchiaparelli was the one who firmly tied Lowellthem with fantastic Martiansthem with fantastic Martiansthem with fantastic Martianshowever, no consequences could be detectedhowever, no consequences could be detectedhowever, no consequences could be detectednot only Martians but also the channelnot only Martians but also the channelnot only Martians but also the channelLowell's Second Firm ConvictionLowell's Second Firm ConvictionLowell's Second Firm Convictionconsisted in the fact that somewhere beyond Neptuneconsisted in the fact that somewhere beyond Neptuneconsisted in the fact that somewhere beyond Neptunemust exist not yet discoveredmust exist not yet discoveredmust exist not yet discoveredthe ninth planet a baptized by planet xthe ninth planet a baptized by planet xthe ninth planet a baptized by planet xLowell based his conviction onLowell based his conviction onLowell based his conviction onthe irregularities he discovered inthe irregularities he discovered inthe irregularities he discovered ininhabited by Uranus and Neptune and dedicatedinhabited by Uranus and Neptune and dedicatedinhabited by Uranus and Neptune and dedicatedthe last years of his life trying to findthe last years of his life trying to findthe last years of his life trying to finda gas giant that he was surea gas giant that he was surea gas giant that he was surethere you were, unfortunatelythere you were, unfortunatelythere you were, unfortunatelyIn 1916, Lowell died suddenly.In 1916, Lowell died suddenly.In 1916, Lowell died suddenly.partly due to health problemspartly due to health problemspartly due to health problemspersistent searches the searches were interrupted andpersistent searches the searches were interrupted andpersistent searches the searches were interrupted andLowell's heirs quarreled overLowell's heirs quarreled overLowell's heirs quarreled overhis propertyhis propertyhis propertyhoweverhoweverhowever1929 partly to distract1929 partly to distract1929 partly to distractattention from the Martian epicattention from the Martian epicattention from the Martian epicBy that time she was already seriously involved in the channelsBy that time she was already seriously involved in the channelsBy that time she was already seriously involved in the channelsstains on the reputation of the board lowstains on the reputation of the board lowstains on the reputation of the board lowElovskaya observatory decidedElovskaya observatory decidedElovskaya observatory decidedresume the search and hired for thisresume the search and hired for thisresume the search and hired for thisyoung kansas clyde tumba tumbayoung kansas clyde tumba tumbayoung kansas clyde tumba tumbaformally had no astronomicalformally had no astronomicalformally had no astronomicaleducation but was different fromeducation but was different fromeducation but was different fromdiligence and resourcefulness you anddiligence and resourcefulness you anddiligence and resourcefulness you andafter a year of patient searching, heafter a year of patient searching, heafter a year of patient searching, hefinally managed to find the spruce plutonfinally managed to find the spruce plutonfinally managed to find the spruce plutona visible bright point among the sparklinga visible bright point among the sparklinga visible bright point among the sparklinga scattering of stars it was amazinga scattering of stars it was amazinga scattering of stars it was amazingthe find is all the more astonishing becausethe find is all the more astonishing becausethe find is all the more astonishing becauseLowell's idea of Neptune's newLowell's idea of Neptune's newLowell's idea of Neptune's newplanet turned out to be completely wrongplanet turned out to be completely wrongplanet turned out to be completely wrongthe nightstand immediately saw that it was a new planetthe nightstand immediately saw that it was a new planetthe nightstand immediately saw that it was a new planetdoesn't look like a giant gas ball at alldoesn't look like a giant gas ball at alldoesn't look like a giant gas ball at allwhich Lowell spoke about but with all the reservationswhich Lowell spoke about but with all the reservationswhich Lowell spoke about but with all the reservationsabout the nature of the new planet that youabout the nature of the new planet that youabout the nature of the new planet that yousaid the pedestal itself or someone else heresaid the pedestal itself or someone else heresaid the pedestal itself or someone else herewere swept away in a sensationalwere swept away in a sensationalwere swept away in a sensationalfeverishly accompanying any importantfeverishly accompanying any importantfeverishly accompanying any importantnews that easily succumbednews that easily succumbednews that easily succumbedto the excitement of the century this was the first opento the excitement of the century this was the first opento the excitement of the century this was the first openAmericans had the planet and no one wanted itAmericans had the planet and no one wanted itAmericans had the planet and no one wanted itthink about what this is all aboutthink about what this is all aboutthink about what this is all aboutonly a distant ice floe called itonly a distant ice floe called itonly a distant ice floe called itPluto partly because the first twoPluto partly because the first twoPluto partly because the first twothe letters formed a monogram of initialsthe letters formed a monogram of initialsthe letters formed a monogram of initialslowella lowella everywhere posthumouslylowella lowella everywhere posthumouslylowella lowella everywhere posthumouslyhailed as the greatest genius of that timehailed as the greatest genius of that timehailed as the greatest genius of that timebecause he was almost forgotten, only rememberedbecause he was almost forgotten, only rememberedbecause he was almost forgotten, only rememberedamong astronomers studying the planetsamong astronomers studying the planetsamong astronomers studying the planetswho deeply respect him somewho deeply respect him somewho deeply respect him someAstronomers still believe that somewhereAstronomers still believe that somewhereAstronomers still believe that somewherethere might be planet x there toothere might be planet x there toothere might be planet x there tooa real giant perhaps 10 timesa real giant perhaps 10 timesa real giant perhaps 10 timesbigger than jupiter but it is so far from usbigger than jupiter but it is so far from usbigger than jupiter but it is so far from usthat while she remains invisible she receivedthat while she remains invisible she receivedthat while she remains invisible she receivedthere would be so little sunlight that she wouldthere would be so little sunlight that she wouldthere would be so little sunlight that she wouldwould reflect almost nothing there is an opinion thatwould reflect almost nothing there is an opinion thatwould reflect almost nothing there is an opinion thatit may turn out to be an unusual planetit may turn out to be an unusual planetit may turn out to be an unusual planetlike Jupiter and Saturn for thislike Jupiter and Saturn for thislike Jupiter and Saturn for thisis too far away they talk aboutis too far away they talk aboutis too far away they talk aboutin quantities of about 7 trillion kilometersin quantities of about 7 trillion kilometersin quantities of about 7 trillion kilometersor rather it is like an unfinished monsoonor rather it is like an unfinished monsoonor rather it is like an unfinished monsoonmost star systems in spacemost star systems in spacemost star systems in spaceare double consisting of twoare double consisting of twoare double consisting of twostars and this is to make our lonely and sunstars and this is to make our lonely and sunstars and this is to make our lonely and sunPluto's size is a bit oddPluto's size is a bit oddPluto's size is a bit oddToday it is defined quite accuratelyToday it is defined quite accuratelyToday it is defined quite accuratelythe diameter isthe diameter isthe diameter is2300 6 plus or minus 20 kilometers2300 6 plus or minus 20 kilometers2300 6 plus or minus 20 kilometersMany astronomers believe that this is not true at allMany astronomers believe that this is not true at allMany astronomers believe that this is not true at allnot a planet but just the largestnot a planet but just the largestnot a planet but just the largestobject found so far in the zoneobject found so far in the zoneobject found so far in the zonespace debris known as the beltspace debris known as the beltspace debris known as the beltkuiperkuiperkuiperIn 2005, a group of astronomers underIn 2005, a group of astronomers underIn 2005, a group of astronomers underunder the leadership of michael brown discovered inunder the leadership of michael brown discovered inunder the leadership of michael brown discovered inKuiper Belt object receivedKuiper Belt object receivedKuiper Belt object receivedpreliminary designation 2003 and killedpreliminary designation 2003 and killedpreliminary designation 2003 and killed313 which is larger than the313 which is larger than the313 which is larger than theThis discovery made it even more acuteThis discovery made it even more acuteThis discovery made it even more acutequestion of the planets to us about the status of Pluto and inquestion of the planets to us about the status of Pluto and inquestion of the planets to us about the status of Pluto and inIn the end, after lengthy debates, it led toIn the end, after lengthy debates, it led toIn the end, after lengthy debates, it led todepriving it of its planet status isdepriving it of its planet status isdepriving it of its planet status ishappened on August 24happened on August 24happened on August 24200620062006in fact the kuiper belt wasin fact the kuiper belt wasin fact the kuiper belt wastheoretically predicted in 1930theoretically predicted in 1930theoretically predicted in 1930astronomers leonard however in bears the nameastronomers leonard however in bears the nameastronomers leonard however in bears the namea Dutchman working in America, Gerarda Dutchman working in America, Gerarda Dutchman working in America, GerardKuiper who developed this idea beltKuiper who developed this idea beltKuiper who developed this idea beltKuiper serves as a source of so-calledKuiper serves as a source of so-calledKuiper serves as a source of so-calledshort periodic comets those thatshort periodic comets those thatshort periodic comets those thatappear relatively regularly mostappear relatively regularly mostappear relatively regularly mostFamous among them is Halley's CometFamous among them is Halley's CometFamous among them is Halley's Cometleading a more secluded lifeleading a more secluded lifeleading a more secluded lifelong periodic comets among themlong periodic comets among themlong periodic comets among themrecent guests comet hale-bopp andrecent guests comet hale-bopp andrecent guests comet hale-bopp andhiyakutake emerge from much morehiyakutake emerge from much morehiyakutake emerge from much moredistant oort clouddistant oort clouddistant oort cloudPluto is certainly not behaving quite like thatPluto is certainly not behaving quite like thatPluto is certainly not behaving quite like thatas other planets orbit plutoas other planets orbit plutoas other planets orbit plutowell defined and not for astronomerswell defined and not for astronomerswell defined and not for astronomersit is difficult to calculate its movementit is difficult to calculate its movementit is difficult to calculate its movementthousands of years into the past and into the futurethousands of years into the past and into the futurethousands of years into the past and into the futurewhile the orbits of other planets arewhile the orbits of other planets arewhile the orbits of other planets aremore or less in the same orbital planemore or less in the same orbital planemore or less in the same orbital planePluto is tilted 17 degrees likePluto is tilted 17 degrees likePluto is tilted 17 degrees likehis hat was dandyishly tilted to one sidehis hat was dandyishly tilted to one sidehis hat was dandyishly tilted to one sidethe orbit is so unusual that on eachthe orbit is so unusual that on eachthe orbit is so unusual that on eachthe turn of his lonely movement aroundthe turn of his lonely movement aroundthe turn of his lonely movement aroundthe sun it is noticeable and time are tothe sun it is noticeable and time are tothe sun it is noticeable and time are tocloser to us than neptune most of the timecloser to us than neptune most of the timecloser to us than neptune most of the timeIn the 1980s and 1990s, it was NeptuneIn the 1980s and 1990s, it was NeptuneIn the 1980s and 1990s, it was Neptunethe most distant planet in the solar systemthe most distant planet in the solar systemthe most distant planet in the solar systemsystems only on February 11systems only on February 11systems only on February 111999 Pluto returned to the outer row1999 Pluto returned to the outer row1999 Pluto returned to the outer rowwhere he will now spend two hundred and twentywhere he will now spend two hundred and twentywhere he will now spend two hundred and twentyeight years so even if plutoeight years so even if plutoeight years so even if plutoit really is a planet, that's for sureit really is a planet, that's for sureit really is a planet, that's for surevery strange, very tinyvery strange, very tinyvery strange, very tinythe mass is only a quarter of a percentthe mass is only a quarter of a percentthe mass is only a quarter of a percentthe mass of the earth if you put pluto onthe mass of the earth if you put pluto onthe mass of the earth if you put pluto onthe territory of the united states then he does notthe territory of the united states then he does notthe territory of the united states then he does notwill occupy half the area of 48 southernwill occupy half the area of ���48 southernwill occupy half the area of 48 southernstates this alone is extremely anomalystates this alone is extremely anomalystates this alone is extremely anomalythis means that our planetary system consists ofthis means that our planetary system consists ofthis means that our planetary system consists offour inner rocky planets 4four inner rocky planets 4four inner rocky planets 4outer gas giants and tinyouter gas giants and tinyouter gas giants and tinylonely ice balllonely ice balllonely ice ballhowever, there is every reason to believe that inhowever, there is every reason to believe that inhowever, there is every reason to believe that inwe will soon begin in that part of spacewe will soon begin in that part of spacewe will soon begin in that part of spacefind other even larger onesfind other even larger onesfind other even larger onesice balls and then we will haveice balls and then we will haveice balls and then we will haveproblems after christie discoveredproblems after christie discoveredproblems after christie discoveredPluto's satellite astronomers become more activePluto's satellite astronomers become more activePluto's satellite astronomers become more activeto look at this sector of space and into look at this sector of space and into look at this sector of space and inearly December 2002 found more than 600early December 2002 found more than 600early December 2002 found more than 600trans-neptunian objects or web astrans-neptunian objects or web astrans-neptunian objects or web asthey are also calledthey are also calledthey are also calledthe name cobweb did not catch onthe name cobweb did not catch onthe name cobweb did not catch oncurrently internationalcurrently internationalcurrently internationalThe Astronomical Union recommendedThe Astronomical Union recommendedThe Astronomical Union recommendeduse terms dwarf planetuse terms dwarf planetuse terms dwarf planetfor spherical objects notfor spherical objects notfor spherical objects notreaching the status of a planet and smallreaching the status of a planet and smallreaching the status of a planet and smallsolar system bodies for allsolar system bodies for allsolar system bodies for allother objectsother objectsother objectsone of them is from the web called inone of them is from the web called inone of them is from the web called ina rune almost the same size asa rune almost the same size asa rune almost the same size asAstronomers now believe that Pluto's satelliteAstronomers now believe that Pluto's satelliteAstronomers now believe that Pluto's satellitethat the number of such objects canthat the number of such objects canthat the number of such objects canto make billions the difficulty is thatto make billions the difficulty is thatto make billions the difficulty is thatmany of them are extremely dark as a rulemany of them are extremely dark as a rulemany of them are extremely dark as a ruletheir albedo is reflectivetheir albedo is reflectivetheir albedo is reflectiveability is only 4 percentability is only 4 percentability is only 4 percentabout the same as a piece of charcoalabout the same as a piece of charcoalabout the same as a piece of charcoalthat's why these pieces of coal are from usthat's why these pieces of coal are from usthat's why these pieces of coal are from usat a distance of more than six billionat a distance of more than six billionat a distance of more than six billionkilometers, but in reality it's farkilometers, but in reality it's farkilometers, but in reality it's farit almost defies imagination you seeit almost defies imagination you seeit almost defies imagination you seeis space simply literate if notis space simply literate if notis space simply literate if notto say monstrously to realize it yesto say monstrously to realize it yesto say monstrously to realize it yesand just for funand just for funand just for funimagine what we are about to doimagine what we are about to doimagine what we are about to dowe are traveling on a rocket shipwe are traveling on a rocket shipwe are traveling on a rocket shipwe won't fly very far, just towe won't fly very far, just towe won't fly very far, just tothe edges of our solar system are justthe edges of our solar system are justthe edges of our solar system are justto determine how bigto determine how bigto determine how bigspace and what small part of it we occupyspace and what small part of it we occupyspace and what small part of it we occupyWeWeWenow the bad news I'm afraid it's for dinnernow the bad news I'm afraid it's for dinnernow the bad news I'm afraid it's for dinnerwe won't return home even at speedwe won't return home even at speedwe won't return home even at speedlight this 300000 kilometers per secondlight this 300000 kilometers per secondlight this 300000 kilometers per secondto get to pluto it would taketo get to pluto it would taketo get to pluto it would take7 hours7 hours7 hoursdepending on the position of Pluto ondepending on the position of Pluto ondepending on the position of Pluto onin orbit, light takes 4 to 7 hours to reach itin orbit, light takes 4 to 7 hours to reach itin orbit, light takes 4 to 7 hours to reach itNow this route takes about five secondsNow this route takes about five secondsNow this route takes about five secondshalf an hourhalf an hourhalf an hourbut of course we can't travel withbut of course we can't travel withbut of course we can't travel withyou'll have to fly at that speedyou'll have to fly at that speedyou'll have to fly at that speedthe speed of an interplanetary ship and this isthe speed of an interplanetary ship and this isthe speed of an interplanetary ship and this ismuch slower highest speedmuch slower highest speedmuch slower highest speedachieved so far by man-madeachieved so far by man-madeachieved so far by man-madeobjects this speed of cosmicobjects this speed of cosmicobjects this speed of cosmicdevices voyager 1 and voyager 2 whichdevices voyager 1 and voyager 2 whichdevices voyager 1 and voyager 2 whichare flying away from us now at a speed of 50are flying away from us now at a speed of 50are flying away from us now at a speed of 50thousand kilometers per hourthousand kilometers per hourthousand kilometers per hourVoyager 1 is moving relative to the sunVoyager 1 is moving relative to the sunVoyager 1 is moving relative to the sunat a speed of over 60 1.2 thousandat a speed of over 60 1.2 thousandat a speed of over 60 1.2 thousandkilometers per hourkilometers per hourkilometers per hour17 kilometers per second speed17 kilometers per second speed17 kilometers per second speedVoyager 2 at 5.8 thousand kilometers thenVoyager 2 at 5.8 thousand kilometers thenVoyager 2 at 5.8 thousand kilometers thenthere is 1.6 kilometers per second lessthere is 1.6 kilometers per second lessthere is 1.6 kilometers per second lessthe reason for launching voyager is precisely inthe reason for launching voyager is precisely inthe reason for launching voyager is precisely inthose dates are August and Septemberthose dates are August and Septemberthose dates are August and September1977 was served by the fact that Jupiter Saturn1977 was served by the fact that Jupiter Saturn1977 was served by the fact that Jupiter Saturnuranus and neptuneuranus and neptuneuranus and neptunethen they lined up as only happensthen they lined up as only happensthen they lined up as only happensonce every 175 yearsonce every 175 yearsonce every 175 yearsthis allowed the battle at Edgerthis allowed the battle at Edgerthis allowed the battle at Edgeruse gravity techniquesuse gravity techniquesuse gravity techniquesmaneuvers when the device alternatelymaneuvers when the device alternatelymaneuvers when the device alternatelyflies from one gas giant to anotherflies from one gas giant to anotherflies from one gas giant to anotherto another, as if we were spurring on by the cosmicto another, as if we were spurring on by the cosmicto another, as if we were spurring on by the cosmicwith a whip but even so they needed itwith a whip but even so they needed itwith a whip but even so they needed it9 years to reach uranium and 12 to9 years to reach uranium and 12 to9 years to reach uranium and 12 tocross pluto's orbit so first thingcross pluto's orbit so first thingcross pluto's orbit so first thingyou probably figured it out so this is whatyou probably figured it out so this is whatyou probably figured it out so this is whatspace is very successful on ozone one ofspace is very successful on ozone one ofspace is very successful on ozone one ofmeanings of English space empty spacemeanings of English space empty spacemeanings of English space empty spaceAndAndAndOur sunny country is terribly poor in eventsOur sunny country is terribly poor in eventsOur sunny country is terribly poor in eventsthe system is probably the busiest placethe system is probably the busiest placethe system is probably the busiest placefor trillions of miles around, however, all thatfor trillions of miles around, however, all thatfor trillions of miles around, however, all thatwe see in it the sun of the planet withwe see in it the sun of the planet withwe see in it the sun of the planet withsatellites a billion or sosatellites a billion or sosatellites a billion or sotumbling rocks asteroid belttumbling rocks asteroid belttumbling rocks asteroid beltcomets and various other floating debriscomets and various other floating debriscomets and various other floating debristakes up less than one trillionth parttakes up less than one trillionth parttakes up less than one trillionth partavailable space you can also easilyavailable space you can also easilyavailable space you can also easilyyou will understand that none of the ones you have metyou will understand that none of the ones you have metyou will understand that none of the ones you have metyou even have a scale map of the solar systemyou even have a scale map of the solar systemyou even have a scale map of the solar systemdoes not remotely correspond to realitydoes not remotely correspond to realitydoes not remotely correspond to realitymost school systems on the planetmost school systems on the planetmost school systems on the planetdepicted next to each other close to each otherdepicted next to each other close to each otherdepicted next to each other close to each othermany illustrations show giant planetsmany illustrations show giant planetsmany illustrations show giant planetseven cast shadows on each other buteven cast shadows on each other buteven cast shadows on each other butit is an inevitable deception in order to place themit is an inevitable deception in order to place themit is an inevitable deception in order to place themall on one sheet of paperall on one sheet of paperall on one sheet of paperin reality neptune is not locatedin reality neptune is not locatedin reality neptune is not locateda little behinda little behinda little behindand far behind Jupiter 5 times further thanand far behind Jupiter 5 times further thanand far behind Jupiter 5 times further thanJupiter itself is so far from us thatJupiter itself is so far from us thatJupiter itself is so far from us thatreceives only 3 percent of the sun's radiationreceives only 3 percent of the sun's radiationreceives only 3 percent of the sun's radiationlight received by Jupiterlight received by Jupiterlight received by Jupiterthese distances are such that in practicethese distances are such that in practicethese distances are such that in practiceit is impossible to depict the solar systemit is impossible to depict the solar systemit is impossible to depict the solar systemkeeping to scale even if donekeeping to scale even if donekeeping to scale even if donelarge folding textbookslarge folding textbookslarge folding textbookspaste or just take the longest onepaste or just take the longest onepaste or just take the longest onea sheet of paper for signs it's all the samea sheet of paper for signs it's all the samea sheet of paper for signs it's all the sameit will not be enough if on a large scaleit will not be enough if on a large scaleit will not be enough if on a large scalesolar system diagram depict earthsolar system diagram depict earthsolar system diagram depict earthJupiter will be the size of a peaJupiter will be the size of a peaJupiter will be the size of a peabe at a distancebe at a distancebe at a distance300 meters and Pluto is two and a half300 meters and Pluto is two and a half300 meters and Pluto is two and a halfkilometers and will be the size of a bacteriumkilometers and will be the size of a bacteriumkilometers and will be the size of a bacteriumso in any case you won't be able toso in any case you won't be able toso in any case you won't be able toPluto can only see this exaggerationPluto can only see this exaggerationPluto can only see this exaggerationfive and a half times less landfive and a half times less landfive and a half times less landOn a sand scale it will be the sizeOn a sand scale it will be the sizeOn a sand scale it will be the sizeabout a millimeterabout a millimeterabout a millimeterthe same scale the nearest starthe same scale the nearest starthe same scale the nearest starProxima Centauri will be inProxima Centauri will be inProxima Centauri will be insixteen thousand kilometers from ussixteen thousand kilometers from ussixteen thousand kilometers from useven if you live everything to thiseven if you live everything to thiseven if you live everything to thisdegrees that Jupiter will become the size ofdegrees that Jupiter will become the size ofdegrees that Jupiter will become the size ofthe period at the end of this sentence and plutothe period at the end of this sentence and plutothe period at the end of this sentence and plutono more molecules and in this case toono more molecules and in this case toono more molecules and in this case tooPluto will be at a distancePluto will be at a distancePluto will be at a distancemore than 10 kilometers on this scalemore than 10 kilometers on this scalemore than 10 kilometers on this scalethe size of pluto will be about five micronsthe size of pluto will be about five micronsthe size of pluto will be about five micronsthis is the size of a large bacterium, which is muchthis is the size of a large bacterium, which is muchthis is the size of a large bacterium, which is muchthousands of times larger than the size of moleculesthousands of times larger than the size of moleculesthousands of times larger than the size of moleculesso the solar system really isso the solar system really isso the solar system really ishuge when we reach pluto thenhuge when we reach pluto thenhuge when we reach pluto thenwe will be so far away that the sun is ourswe will be so far away that the sun is ourswe will be so far away that the sun is oursnative warm giving us life beyond the mountainsnative warm giving us life beyond the mountainsnative warm giving us life beyond the mountainsthe sun will shrink to the size of a pinthe sun will shrink to the size of a pinthe sun will shrink to the size of a pinthe heads are slightly larger than the bright star inthe heads are slightly larger than the bright star inthe heads are slightly larger than the bright star inreality sun on plutoreality sun on plutoreality sun on plutosignificantly brighter than the full moon on earthsignificantly brighter than the full moon on earthsignificantly brighter than the full moon on earthIt's quite possible to read by its lightIt's quite possible to read by its lightIt's quite possible to read by its lightin such a melancholy emptiness youin such a melancholy emptiness youin such a melancholy emptiness youyou will begin to understand why even veryyou will begin to understand why even veryyou will begin to understand why even verysignificant objects such as a satellitesignificant objects such as a satellitesignificant objects such as a satellitePluto's have escaped attention in thisPluto's have escaped attention in thisPluto's have escaped attention in thisI mean Pluto is not alone before the flightI mean Pluto is not alone before the flightI mean Pluto is not alone before the flightvoyager believed that neptune had twovoyager believed that neptune had twovoyager believed that neptune had twovoyager satellite found six more when ivoyager satellite found six more when ivoyager satellite found six more when iwhen I was a boy it was believed that in the solarwhen I was a boy it was believed that in the solarwhen I was a boy it was believed that in the solarThere are 30 satellites in the system nowThere are 30 satellites in the system nowThere are 30 satellites in the system nowthere are at least ninetythere are at least ninetythere are at least ninetyabout a third of them were discoveredabout a third of them were discoveredabout a third of them were discoveredthe last 10 years from here it follows thatthe last 10 years from here it follows thatthe last 10 years from here it follows thatwhen we judge the universe as a whole we mustwhen we judge the universe as a whole we mustwhen we judge the universe as a whole we mustremember that we essentially don't know whatremember that we essentially don't know whatremember that we essentially don't know whathappens in our own solar systemhappens in our own solar systemhappens in our own solar systemsystemsystemsystemand now one more thing that followsand now one more thing that followsand now one more thing that followstake into account that we are only flying past Plutotake into account that we are only flying past Plutotake into account that we are only flying past Plutowe fly past pluto if you look inwe fly past pluto if you look inwe fly past pluto if you look inflight plan then you will see that its targetflight plan then you will see that its targetflight plan then you will see that its targettravel to the edge of the solar system buttravel to the edge of the solar system buttravel to the edge of the solar system butI'm afraid we haven't gotten there yetI'm afraid we haven't gotten there yetI'm afraid we haven't gotten there yetPluto may be the last objectPluto may be the last objectPluto may be the last objectmarked on school maps but itselfmarked on school maps but itselfmarked on school maps but itselfthe system doesn't really end herethe system doesn't really end herethe system doesn't really end herewe don't even see the end of it yetwe don't even see the end of it yetwe don't even see the end of it yetlet's get to the edge of the solar system by nowlet's get to the edge of the solar system by nowlet's get to the edge of the solar system by nowwe won't get through the oort cloudswe won't get through the oort cloudswe won't get through the oort cloudsa vast kingdom of wandering comets and a clouda vast kingdom of wandering comets and a clouda vast kingdom of wandering comets and a cloudwe won't reach oort before i askwe won't reach oort before i askwe won't reach oort before i askforgiveness after 10000 yearsforgiveness after 10000 yearsforgiveness after 10000 yearsPluto only answers onePluto only answers onePluto only answers one50000 but the path is not the end50000 but the path is not the end50000 but the path is not the endsolar system as unceremoniouslysolar system as unceremoniouslysolar system as unceremoniouslyindicated on school chartsindicated on school chartsindicated on school chartsnote since the oort cloudnote since the oort cloudnote since the oort cloudremains a hypothetical objectremains a hypothetical objectremains a hypothetical objectAstronomers tend to consider the boundariesAstronomers tend to consider the boundariesAstronomers tend to consider the boundariessolar systemsolar systemsolar systemthe so-called helio pause area wherethe so-called helio pause area wherethe so-called helio pause area wheresolar wind stream of charged particlessolar wind stream of charged particlessolar wind stream of charged particlesemitted by the sun collides withemitted by the sun collides withemitted by the sun collides withinterstellar medium and mixes withinterstellar medium and mixes withinterstellar medium and mixes withthe distance to the helio pause is approximatelythe distance to the helio pause is approximatelythe distance to the helio pause is approximatelytwice as much as to Pluto andtwice as much as to Pluto andtwice as much as to Pluto andinterplanetary stationinterplanetary stationinterplanetary stationVoyager 1 began to cross the gelVoyager 1 began to cross the gelVoyager 1 began to cross the gelpause in the middlepause in the middlepause in the middle2012 year2012 year2012 yearOf course we have no chance of doing such a thingOf course we have no chance of doing such a thingOf course we have no chance of doing such a thingjourneyjourneyjourneyeven a trip to three hundred and eighty sixeven a trip to three hundred and eighty sixeven a trip to three hundred and eighty sixthousands of kilometers to the moon yetthousands of kilometers to the moon yetthousands of kilometers to the moon yetquite a complex undertaking flying peoplequite a complex undertaking flying peoplequite a complex undertaking flying peopleto Mars which in a short momentto Mars which in a short momentto Mars which in a short momentPresident Bush called for dizzinessPresident Bush called for dizzinessPresident Bush called for dizzinessslowly put aside whenslowly put aside whenslowly put aside whensomeone calculated that it would costsomeone calculated that it would costsomeone calculated that it would cost450 billion dollars and possibly450 billion dollars and possibly450 billion dollars and possiblywill end with the death of the entire crew of their DNAwill end with the death of the entire crew of their DNAwill end with the death of the entire crew of their DNAwould have blown solar particles to pieceswould have blown solar particles to pieceswould have blown solar particles to pieceswe are high energy from which they do notwe are high energy from which they do notwe are high energy from which they do notcould defend themselves based on thiscould defend themselves based on thiscould defend themselves based on thiswe now know we can imaginewe now know we can imaginewe now know we can imaginestaying within reason nostaying within reason nostaying within reason nothere is absolutely no chance that a personthere is absolutely no chance that a personthere is absolutely no chance that a personwill ever reach the edge of the sunwill ever reach the edge of the sunwill ever reach the edge of the sunsystems are just too farsystems are just too farsystems are just too farin the current conditions even with the help ofin the current conditions even with the help ofin the current conditions even with the help ofthe hubble telescope can't see the cloudthe hubble telescope can't see the cloudthe hubble telescope can't see the cloudoorta so we essentially don't knowoorta so we essentially don't knowoorta so we essentially don't knowthat his existence is therethat his existence is therethat his existence is thereIt is very likely, but it remains onlyIt is very likely, but it remains onlyIt is very likely, but it remains onlyhypotheses it would be correct to call ithypotheses it would be correct to call ithypotheses it would be correct to call itcloud and and pico art estonian i am an astronomercloud and and pico art estonian i am an astronomercloud and and pico art estonian i am an astronomerErnst O'Pick put forward this hypothesis inErnst O'Pick put forward this hypothesis inErnst O'Pick put forward this hypothesis inIn 1932, the Dutch astronomer Jan OortIn 1932, the Dutch astronomer Jan OortIn 1932, the Dutch astronomer Jan Oort18 years later, I clarified the calculation of everything18 years later, I clarified the calculation of everything18 years later, I clarified the calculation of everythingit is safe to say about the cloudit is safe to say about the cloudit is safe to say about the cloudoorta so that's what it startsoorta so that's what it startsoorta so that's what it startssomewhere beyond Pluto and stretches for aboutsomewhere beyond Pluto and stretches for aboutsomewhere beyond Pluto and stretches for abouttwo light years into space maintwo light years into space maintwo light years into space mainthe measure of length in the solar system isthe measure of length in the solar system isthe measure of length in the solar system isastronomical unit denoted by a.astronomical unit denoted by a.astronomical unit denoted by a.e .e .e .which corresponds to the distance fromwhich corresponds to the distance fromwhich corresponds to the distance fromsun to earth pluto is from ussun to earth pluto is from ussun to earth pluto is from usapproximately 40 AU from the core of the cloudapproximately 40 AU from the core of the cloudapproximately 40 AU from the core of the cloudoorta is approximately 50 thousand and Ioorta is approximately 50 thousand and Ioorta is approximately 50 thousand and Iin a word it's far but let's do it againin a word it's far but let's do it againin a word it's far but let's do it againlet's imagine that we got to the cloudlet's imagine that we got to the cloudlet's imagine that we got to the cloudoorta the first thing you will notice here is thatoorta the first thing you will notice here is thatoorta the first thing you will notice here is thatcomplete calm we climbed verycomplete calm we climbed verycomplete calm we climbed veryso far away that even our sunso far away that even our sunso far away that even our sunis not the brightest star onis not the brightest star onis not the brightest star onin the skyin the skyin the skyIt's amazing that such a tiny thing is so far awayIt's amazing that such a tiny thing is so far awayIt's amazing that such a tiny thing is so far awaythe flame has enough powerthe flame has enough powerthe flame has enough powergravitygravitygravityto keep all these in orbitto keep all these in orbitto keep all these in orbitcomets these bonds are not very strong socomets these bonds are not very strong socomets these bonds are not very strong socomets float majestically with speedcomets float majestically with speedcomets float majestically with speedjust a few hundred kilometers per hourjust a few hundred kilometers per hourjust a few hundred kilometers per hourevery now and then one of these lonely onesevery now and then one of these lonely onesevery now and then one of these lonely onescomets converge their normal orbits undercomets converge their normal orbits undercomets converge their normal orbits underby the action of some weakby the action of some weakby the action of some weakgravitational disturbance is possible fromgravitational disturbance is possible fromgravitational disturbance is possible froma star flying past sometimesa star flying past sometimesa star flying past sometimesthrows into the void of spacethrows into the void of spacethrows into the void of spacespaces and we will never againspaces and we will never againspaces and we will never againwe'll see but sometimes they switch towe'll see but sometimes they switch towe'll see but sometimes they switch toan elongated orbit around the sun every yearan elongated orbit around the sun every yearan elongated orbit around the sun every yearthrough the inner regions of the solarthrough the inner regions of the solarthrough the inner regions of the solarsystems fly by 34 suchsystems fly by 34 suchsystems fly by 34 suchlong-period cometslong-period cometslong-period cometsoccasionally these random guests crash intooccasionally these random guests crash intooccasionally these random guests crash intosomething solid like earth so that's whysomething solid like earth so that's whysomething solid like earth so that's whywe ended up here a comet on which wewe ended up here a comet on which wewe ended up here a comet on which wejust arrived to take a lookjust arrived to take a lookjust arrived to take a lookbegan its long declinebegan its long declinebegan its long declineto the center of the solar system itto the center of the solar system itto the center of the solar system itheading to think just townheading to think just townheading to think just townManson State it's still a long way to goManson State it's still a long way to goManson State it's still a long way to gothere are at least three or four million herethere are at least three or four million herethere are at least three or four million hereyears so for now leave her alone andyears so for now leave her alone andyears so for now leave her alone andwe'll come back to it laterwe'll come back to it laterwe'll come back to it laterso this is our solar system and whatso this is our solar system and whatso this is our solar system and whatthere is still outside the solar systemthere is still outside the solar systemthere is still outside the solar systemnothing and at the same time a lot of itnothing and at the same time a lot of itnothing and at the same time a lot of itdepends on how you look at itdepends on how you look at itdepends on how you look at itin the short term there is nothing there the mostin the short term there is nothing there the mostin the short term there is nothing there the mostthe deepest vacuum ever createdthe deepest vacuum ever createdthe deepest vacuum ever createdpeople are not as empty as interstellarpeople are not as empty as interstellarpeople are not as empty as interstellarspace and you have to overcomespace and you have to overcomespace and you have to overcomea fair amount of this is nothing yeta fair amount of this is nothing yeta fair amount of this is nothing yetyou won't get to the next pieceyou won't get to the next pieceyou won't get to the next piecesomething our closest neighborsomething our closest neighborsomething our closest neighborspace proxima centauri entering intospace proxima centauri entering intospace proxima centauri entering intothe triple star composition known asthe triple star composition known asthe triple star composition known asAlpha Centauri is located at a distance from usAlpha Centauri is located at a distance from usAlpha Centauri is located at a distance from usdistancedistancedistance4 whole and 3 tenths of a light year4 whole and 3 tenths of a light year4 whole and 3 tenths of a light yeara trifle on the scale of the galaxy, but it isa trifle on the scale of the galaxy, but it isa trifle on the scale of the galaxy, but it is100 million times further than the moon to100 million times further than the moon to100 million times further than the moon toget there by interplanetary shipget there by interplanetary shipget there by interplanetary shipit would take at least twenty-fiveit would take at least twenty-fiveit would take at least twenty-fivethousands of years even if you did itthousands of years even if you did itthousands of years even if you did itjourneyjourneyjourneythen they still wouldn't have found anything exceptthen they still wouldn't have found anything exceptthen they still wouldn't have found anything excepta lonely bunch of stars in the middlea lonely bunch of stars in the middlea lonely bunch of stars in the middleboundless emptinessboundless emptinessboundless emptinessto get to the next noticeableto get to the next noticeableto get to the next noticeableSirius milestones you will need to overcomeSirius milestones you will need to overcomeSirius milestones you will need to overcomeanother 4.6 light yearsanother 4.6 light yearsanother 4.6 light yearsstrictly speaking sirius is 6thstrictly speaking sirius is 6thstrictly speaking sirius is 6thdistance from the sun of the star system indistance from the sun of the star system indistance from the sun of the star system init includes eight stars just moreit includes eight stars just moreit includes eight stars just morenearby stars except alpha centauri nonearby stars except alpha centauri nonearby stars except alpha centauri novisible to the naked eye distance fromvisible to the naked eye distance fromvisible to the naked eye distance fromthe sun to sirius is 8.6 light years awaythe sun to sirius is 8.6 light years awaythe sun to sirius is 8.6 light years awayproxima centauri to sirius even furtherproxima centauri to sirius even furtherproxima centauri to sirius even further9.3 light years because these stars9.3 light years because these stars9.3 light years because these starsare in different directions fromare in different directions fromare in different directions fromsun andsun andsun andit will continue to be like this if you wantit will continue to be like this if you wantit will continue to be like this if you wantwander through space from star to starwander through space from star to starwander through space from star to starjust to reach the center of ourjust to reach the center of ourjust to reach the center of ourgalaxiesgalaxiesgalaxiesit will take more time thanit will take more time thanit will take more time thanthere is a human racethere is a human racethere is a human racespace let me repeat this somethingspace let me repeat this somethingspace let me repeat this somethingmonstrously huge average distancesmonstrously huge average distancesmonstrously huge average distancesbetween stars is more than 30between stars is more than 30between stars is more than 30millions of millions of kilometers even atmillions of millions of kilometers even atmillions of millions of kilometers even atspeeds approaching the speedspeeds approaching the speedspeeds approaching the speedlight is thislight is thislight is thisfantastically far for anyonefantastically far for anyonefantastically far for anyonea wandering individual of coursea wandering individual of coursea wandering individual of courseIt is possible that extraterrestrial beingsIt is possible that extraterrestrial beingsIt is possible that extraterrestrial beingstravel billions of miles totravel billions of miles totravel billions of miles tohave fun doing circles onhave fun doing circles onhave fun doing circles onsown fields of wiltshire or to deathsown fields of wiltshire or to deathsown fields of wiltshire or to deathscaring the poor guy riding in the truckscaring the poor guy riding in the truckscaring the poor guy riding in the truckon a deserted road somewhere in Arizonaon a deserted road somewhere in Arizonaon a deserted road somewhere in Arizonaafter all she must have some mischiefafter all she must have some mischiefafter all she must have some mischiefteenagers but it still seems like itteenagers but it still seems like itteenagers but it still seems like itextremelyextremelyextremelyunlikely statistically speakingunlikely statistically speakingunlikely statistically speakingthe probability that there is somewhere out therethe probability that there is somewhere out therethe probability that there is somewhere out therethinking beingsthinking beingsthinking beingsquite decently no one knows for surequite decently no one knows for surequite decently no one knows for surehow many stars in the milky way estimateshow many stars in the milky way estimateshow many stars in the milky way estimatesrange from hundreds of billions torange from hundreds of billions torange from hundreds of billions tomaybe 400 billion and yet the Milky Waymaybe 400 billion and yet the Milky Waymaybe 400 billion and yet the Milky Wayway only one in 140 billionway only one in 140 billionway only one in 140 billiongalaxies many of which are even largergalaxies many of which are even largergalaxies many of which are even largeroursoursoursnumber of galaxies in the visible partnumber of galaxies in the visible partnumber of galaxies in the visible partthe universe is known even less precisely butthe universe is known even less precisely butthe universe is known even less precisely butthere is reason to believe that there are more of themthere is reason to believe that there are more of themthere is reason to believe that there are more of themtrillionIn the 1960s, a Cornell professorIn the 1960s, a Cornell professorIn the 1960s, a Cornell professoruniversity frank drake exciteduniversity frank drake exciteduniversity frank drake excitedhe came up with such monstrous figureshe came up with such monstrous figureshe came up with such monstrous figuresthe famous formula for calculatingthe famous formula for calculatingthe famous formula for calculatingprobabilities of existence in spaceprobabilities of existence in spaceprobabilities of existence in spacehighly developed life in the form of a serieshighly developed life in the form of a serieshighly developed life in the form of a serieswe multiply their probability using the formulawe multiply their probability using the formulawe multiply their probability using the formuladrake number of stars in selected areadrake number of stars in selected areadrake number of stars in selected areayou multiply the universe by the share of starsyou multiply the universe by the share of starsyou multiply the universe by the share of starswhich may have a planetary systemwhich may have a planetary systemwhich may have a planetary systemthen multiply this by the planetary fractionthen multiply this by the planetary fractionthen multiply this by the planetary fractionsystems theoretically capablesystems theoretically capablesystems theoretically capablesupport lifesupport lifesupport lifemultiply by the share of those of them wheremultiply by the share of those of them wheremultiply by the share of those of them wherethe life that has arisen gives birth to reason and sothe life that has arisen gives birth to reason and sothe life that has arisen gives birth to reason and sothen, with each of these multiplications of the numberthen, with each of these multiplications of the numberthen, with each of these multiplications of the numberare shrinking enormously but even fromare shrinking enormously but even fromare shrinking enormously but even fromthe most conservative initial datathe most conservative initial datathe most conservative initial datathe number of advanced civilizations in onethe number of advanced civilizations in onethe number of advanced civilizations in oneonly in the milky wayonly in the milky wayonly in the milky wayinvariably numbered in the millionsinvariably numbered in the millionsinvariably numbered in the millionsexperts disagree greatlyexperts disagree greatlyexperts disagree greatlyevaluation of the quantities included in the Drake formulaevaluation of the quantities included in the Drake formulaevaluation of the quantities included in the Drake formulain some they really workin some they really workin some they really workmillions of civilizations in the galaxy andmillions of civilizations in the galaxy andmillions of civilizations in the galaxy andothers it turns out that our civilization is barelyothers it turns out that our civilization is barelyothers it turns out that our civilization is barelyIsn't it the only scientific data yet?Isn't it the only scientific data yet?Isn't it the only scientific data yet?not enough to resolve this disputenot enough to resolve this disputenot enough to resolve this disputesuch an interesting exciting thought wesuch an interesting exciting thought wesuch an interesting exciting thought weperhaps only one of millions of developedperhaps only one of millions of developedperhaps only one of millions of developedcivilizations unfortunately spacecivilizations unfortunately spacecivilizations unfortunately spacethe space is so vast thatthe space is so vast thatthe space is so vast thatthe average distance between any two ofthe average distance between any two ofthe average distance between any two ofthese civilizationsthese civilizationsthese civilizationsis calculated according to at leastis calculated according to at leastis calculated according to at leastat least 200 light years away it's easier said than doneat least 200 light years away it's easier said than doneat least 200 light years away it's easier said than doneimagine starting with the fact that even ifimagine starting with the fact that even ifimagine starting with the fact that even ifthese creatures know about us and somehowthese creatures know about us and somehowthese creatures know about us and somehoware able to look at us in their own wayare able to look at us in their own wayare able to look at us in their own waytelescopes they observe the light that has lefttelescopes they observe the light that has lefttelescopes they observe the light that has leftthe earth 200 years ago so that they see notthe earth 200 years ago so that they see notthe earth 200 years ago so that they see notthey are watching us with Frenchthey are watching us with Frenchthey are watching us with Frenchthomas jefferson revolution persons inthomas jefferson revolution persons inthomas jefferson revolution persons insilk stockings and powdered wigssilk stockings and powdered wigssilk stockings and powdered wigspeople who don't know what an atom or a gene ispeople who don't know what an atom or a gene ispeople who don't know what an atom or a gene isreceiving electricity by rubbing with a piecereceiving electricity by rubbing with a piecereceiving electricity by rubbing with a piecefur amber stick and consider itfur amber stick and consider itfur amber stick and consider ita very clever trick any messagea very clever trick any messagea very clever trick any messagewhich we will receive from these observerswhich we will receive from these observerswhich we will receive from these observerswill probably start with an appealwill probably start with an appealwill probably start with an appealhonorable sir and will containhonorable sir and will containhonorable sir and will containcongratulations on our statuscongratulations on our statuscongratulations on our statushorses and the skillful development of whale oilhorses and the skillful development of whale oilhorses and the skillful development of whale oil200 light years is so far200 light years is so far200 light years is so farfor us, what is simply beyondfor us, what is simply beyondfor us, what is simply beyondour understandingour understandingour understandingso even if we are not alone inso even if we are not alone inso even if we are not alone inin principle, in practice we will in any casein principle, in practice we will in any casein principle, in practice we will in any casewe are alone carl saganwe are alone carl saganwe are alone carl sagancalculated that there are suitable planets incalculated that there are suitable planets incalculated that there are suitable planets inthe universe is somewhere around 10 billionthe universe is somewhere around 10 billionthe universe is somewhere around 10 billiontrillions is a number that doesn't fittrillions is a number that doesn't fittrillions is a number that doesn't fitin my head but it doesn't give in at allin my head but it doesn't give in at allin my head but it doesn't give in at allto the imagination so these are the dimensions of spaceto the imagination so these are the dimensions of spaceto the imagination so these are the dimensions of spaceon which they are scattered if aboveon which they are scattered if aboveon which they are scattered if aboverandomly threw it somewhererandomly threw it somewhererandomly threw it somewherespace writes sagan chances to be onspace writes sagan chances to be onspace writes sagan chances to be onthe surface of the planets or near itthe surface of the planets or near itthe surface of the planets or near itwould exceed one in a billionwould exceed one in a billionwould exceed one in a billiontrillion trillion that means 10 intrillion trillion that means 10 intrillion trillion that means 10 inthirty-third power or one withthirty-third power or one withthirty-third power or one withthirty three zerosthirty three zerosthirty three zerosthat's why it might be good newsthat's why it might be good newsthat's why it might be good newsis the official recognition of Februaryis the official recognition of Februaryis the official recognition of February1999 Pluto planet from the side1999 Pluto planet from the side1999 Pluto planet from the sideInternational Astronomical UnionInternational Astronomical UnionInternational Astronomical Unionthe universe is vast and a deserted place for usthe universe is vast and a deserted place for usthe universe is vast and a deserted place for usany neighbor will be satisfied in 2006any neighbor will be satisfied in 2006any neighbor will be satisfied in 2006The debate about Pluto's status has gained momentumThe debate about Pluto's status has gained momentumThe debate about Pluto's status has gained momentumOn the contrary, most astronomers alreadyOn the contrary, most astronomers alreadyOn the contrary, most astronomers alreadyIt has long been recognized that Pluto is nothingIt has long been recognized that Pluto is nothingIt has long been recognized that Pluto is nothingis not fundamentally different from othersis not fundamentally different from othersis not fundamentally different from otherskuiper belt objects latestkuiper belt objects latestkuiper belt objects latestFor decades, the planet's status was retainedFor decades, the planet's status was retainedFor decades, the planet's status was retainedhim solely by traditionhim solely by traditionhim solely by traditionInternational Astronomical UnionInternational Astronomical UnionInternational Astronomical Unionresponsible for the nomenclature of spaceresponsible for the nomenclature of spaceresponsible for the nomenclature of spaceobjects were twice appointed by the commissionobjects were twice appointed by the commissionobjects were twice appointed by the commissionwhich were supposed to be developedwhich were supposed to be developedwhich were supposed to be developedformal definition of planetformal definition of planetformal definition of planetastronomers were trying to do it on the one handastronomers were trying to do it on the one handastronomers were trying to do it on the one handgive a physically sound definitiongive a physically sound definitiongive a physically sound definitionand on the other hand, not to break traditionand on the other hand, not to break traditionand on the other hand, not to break traditionrecognizing Pluto as a planet, however, bothrecognizing Pluto as a planet, however, bothrecognizing Pluto as a planet, however, boththe commissions were unable to cope with thisthe commissions were unable to cope with thisthe commissions were unable to cope with thistask and ultimately on the 26th generaltask and ultimately on the 26th generaltask and ultimately on the 26th generalthe assembly of mat was adopted a definitionthe assembly of mat was adopted a definitionthe assembly of mat was adopted a definitionaccording to which Pluto is notaccording to which Pluto is notaccording to which Pluto is notplanets along with several othersplanets along with several othersplanets along with several othersKuiper Belt Objects and AsteroidsKuiper Belt Objects and AsteroidsKuiper Belt Objects and AsteroidsCeres now classifies it asCeres now classifies it asCeres now classifies it asdwarf planetsdwarf planetsdwarf planetswhen the sky is clear the moon is not too brightwhen the sky is clear the moon is not too brightwhen the sky is clear the moon is not too brightReverend Robert Evans QuietlyReverend Robert Evans QuietlyReverend Robert Evans Quietlya cheerful man drags a bulkya cheerful man drags a bulkya cheerful man drags a bulkytelescope on the back porch of his house intelescope on the back porch of his house intelescope on the back porch of his house inblue mountains of australia about 80blue mountains of australia about 80blue mountains of australia about 80kilometers from Sydney and is given over tokilometers from Sydney and is given over tokilometers from Sydney and is given over toas usual he peers intoas usual he peers intoas usual he peers intothe depths of the past and finds the dyingthe depths of the past and finds the dyingthe depths of the past and finds the dyingstars look into the past of coursestars look into the past of coursestars look into the past of coursethe easiest part of the matter is look atthe easiest part of the matter is look atthe easiest part of the matter is look atthe night sky will appear before youthe night sky will appear before youthe night sky will appear before youhistory many stories not like thathistory many stories not like thathistory many stories not like thatstars what are they now attacksstars what are they now attacksstars what are they now attackswhat they were like when the one who came left themwhat they were like when the one who came left themwhat they were like when the one who came left thembefore us now color how do we know wholebefore us now color how do we know wholebefore us now color how do we know wholeIs our faithful companion the North StarIs our faithful companion the North StarIs our faithful companion the North StarDidn't it burn to the ground in January?Didn't it burn to the ground in January?Didn't it burn to the ground in January?last year or inlast year or inlast year or in1854 or any time since the beginning of the 141854 or any time since the beginning of the 141854 or any time since the beginning of the 14centuriescenturiescenturiesAndAndAndit's just that this news hasn't reached us yetit's just that this news hasn't reached us yetit's just that this news hasn't reached us yetthe most we can always dothe most we can always dothe most we can always doto claim that she was still shining at thisto claim that she was still shining at thisto claim that she was still shining at thisday six hundred and eighty years agoday six hundred and eighty years agoday six hundred and eighty years agostars die all the time what happensstars die all the time what happensstars die all the time what happensBob Evans has the best of all who have tried itBob Evans has the best of all who have tried itBob Evans has the best of all who have tried itwhat this does is to time momentswhat this does is to time momentswhat this does is to time momentsstar farewellsstar farewellsstar farewellsdaytime events good-natured and now almostdaytime events good-natured and now almostdaytime events good-natured and now almostretired priest unitedretired priest unitedretired priest unitedchurches of australia sometimes replace cabbage soup andchurches of australia sometimes replace cabbage soup andchurches of australia sometimes replace cabbage soup anda studying the history of religiousa studying the history of religiousa studying the history of religiousachievements of the 19th century but at night heachievements of the 19th century but at night heachievements of the 19th century but at night hehe becomes a humble titan of the heavenshe becomes a humble titan of the heavenshe becomes a humble titan of the heavenshunting for supernovashunting for supernovashunting for supernovasA supernova occurs when somethingA supernova occurs when somethingA supernova occurs when somethingthe giant star is much larger than oursthe giant star is much larger than oursthe giant star is much larger than ourssunsunsuncollapses and then explodes spectacularlycollapses and then explodes spectacularlycollapses and then explodes spectacularlyreleasing the energy of hundreds at one momentreleasing the energy of hundreds at one momentreleasing the energy of hundreds at one momentbillions of suns and burns for a whilebillions of suns and burns for a whilebillions of suns and burns for a whilebrighter than all the stars in its galaxy togetherbrighter than all the stars in its galaxy togetherbrighter than all the stars in its galaxy togethertakentakentakenit's like a simultaneous explosionit's like a simultaneous explosionit's like a simultaneous explosiontrillion hydrogen bombs say evanstrillion hydrogen bombs say evanstrillion hydrogen bombs say evansaccording to him, if a supernova explosionaccording to him, if a supernova explosionaccording to him, if a supernova explosionhappened in our corner of space we hadhappened in our corner of space we hadhappened in our corner of space we hadwould be the endwould be the endwould be the endhe would have ruined the whole showhe would have ruined the whole showhe would have ruined the whole showthe astronomer concludes cheerfully butthe astronomer concludes cheerfully butthe astronomer concludes cheerfully butuniverse vast supernova usuallyuniverse vast supernova usuallyuniverse vast supernova usuallytoo far to harm ustoo far to harm ustoo far to harm usin fact most of them are like thatin fact most of them are like thatin fact most of them are like thatunimaginably far away that light from themunimaginably far away that light from themunimaginably far away that light from themreaches us only in the form of barelyreaches us only in the form of barelyreaches us only in the form of barelynoticeable flickering for about a yearnoticeable flickering for about a yearnoticeable flickering for about a yearmonths while they are visible they differ frommonths while they are visible they differ frommonths while they are visible they differ fromother stars only because they occupyother stars only because they occupyother stars only because they occupythere is a place in the sky that was not filledthere is a place in the sky that was not filledthere is a place in the sky that was not filledbefore and these abnormal very rarelybefore and these abnormal very rarelybefore and these abnormal very rarelytiny dots appearingtiny dots appearingtiny dots appearingsearches on the starry nightsearches on the starry nightsearches on the starry nightin the firmament reverend evans to understandin the firmament reverend evans to understandin the firmament reverend evans to understandWhat a skill, imagine thatWhat a skill, imagine thatWhat a skill, imagine thatregular dining table covered with blackregular dining table covered with blackregular dining table covered with blacktablecloth with a handful of scattered on ittablecloth with a handful of scattered on ittablecloth with a handful of scattered on itgrains of salt scattered across the tableclothgrains of salt scattered across the tableclothgrains of salt scattered across the tableclothsalts can be mistaken for a galaxy nowsalts can be mistaken for a galaxy nowsalts can be mistaken for a galaxy nowimagine one and a half thousand of these tablesimagine one and a half thousand of these tablesimagine one and a half thousand of these tablesenough to line them upenough to line them upenough to line them upthree kilometers long and at random on eachthree kilometers long and at random on eachthree kilometers long and at random on eachscattered salt add a grain of saltscattered salt add a grain of saltscattered salt add a grain of salton one of these tables and giveon one of these tables and giveon one of these tables and givethe opportunity for Babu Evans to go to distant placesthe opportunity for Babu Evans to go to distant placesthe opportunity for Babu Evans to go to distant placeshe will find her at first sighthe will find her at first sighthe will find her at first sightthe grain is the top, the new onethe grain is the top, the new onethe grain is the top, the new onein fact, the brightness of the supernova is notin fact, the brightness of the supernova is notin fact, the brightness of the supernova is notare inferior to the brightness of the galaxy so thatare inferior to the brightness of the galaxy so thatare inferior to the brightness of the galaxy so thatit would be more correct to talk about more than oneit would be more correct to talk about more than oneit would be more correct to talk about more than onegrains added and about a handful whichgrains added and about a handful whichgrains added and about a handful whichpiled up on the tablepiled up on the tablepiled up on the tableevents has an exceptionalevents has an exceptionalevents has an exceptionaltalent that oliver sacks in the booktalent that oliver sacks in the booktalent that oliver sacks in the bookAn anthropologist on Mars mentions it inAn anthropologist on Mars mentions it inAn anthropologist on Mars mentions it inhead dedicated to autism among majorhead dedicated to autism among majorhead dedicated to autism among majorscientists and immediately adds there are noscientists and immediately adds there are noscientists and immediately adds there are nosigns that he suffered from autismsigns that he suffered from autismsigns that he suffered from autismEvans never met SaxEvans never met SaxEvans never met Saxlaughs at the suggestion that helaughs at the suggestion that helaughs at the suggestion that hescientist or autistic but not inscientist or autistic but not inscientist or autistic but not inable to explain where he got this fromable to explain where he got this fromable to explain where he got this fromtalent I just have the abilitytalent I just have the abilitytalent I just have the abilityremember star fields termremember star fields termremember star fields termsupernova was invented in the 1930ssupernova was invented in the 1930ssupernova was invented in the 1930sremembered for its eccentricities myremembered for its eccentricities myremembered for its eccentricities myastrophysicist brits flowers born inastrophysicist brits flowers born inastrophysicist brits flowers born inBulgarians and Swiss-raised ZwickysBulgarians and Swiss-raised ZwickysBulgarians and Swiss-raised Zwickyscame to california techcame to california techcame to california techInstituteInstituteInstitute1920s and immediately stood out1920s and immediately stood out1920s and immediately stood outwith his extravagance and unbearable characterwith his extravagance and unbearable characterwith his extravagance and unbearable characterIt cannot be said that he had brilliantIt cannot be said that he had brilliantIt cannot be said that he had brilliantabilities and many colleaguesabilities and many colleaguesabilities and many colleaguestreated him like an annoying clowntreated him like an annoying clowntreated him like an annoying clownbeing a passionate advocate of healthy livingbeing a passionate advocate of healthy livingbeing a passionate advocate of healthy livinglifestyle he often fell to the floor inlifestyle he often fell to the floor inlifestyle he often fell to the floor inCaltech cafeteria or somewhere elseCaltech cafeteria or somewhere elseCaltech cafeteria or somewhere elseto the public and did one-arm push-upsto the public and did one-arm push-upsto the public and did one-arm push-upsshowing off his power to anyone who wasshowing off his power to anyone who wasshowing off his power to anyone who wasI tend to doubt he was defiantI tend to doubt he was defiantI tend to doubt he was defiantzaderi st and over time and his behaviorzaderi st and over time and his behaviorzaderi st and over time and his behaviorbecame so frightening that itbecame so frightening that itbecame so frightening that itclosest colleague walter bada veryclosest colleague walter bada veryclosest colleague walter bada verya gentle person by nature did not darea gentle person by nature did not darea gentle person by nature did not darebe alone with himbe alone with himbe alone with himAmong other things, the scrolls accused bada GermansAmong other things, the scrolls accused bada GermansAmong other things, the scrolls accused bada Germansby nationality he is a Naziby nationality he is a Naziby nationality he is a Naziwhich he never was at leastwhich he never was at leastwhich he never was at leastonce sveta threatened to kill badyonce sveta threatened to kill badyonce sveta threatened to kill badyworking at the observatory on mountworking at the observatory on mountworking at the observatory on mountWilson if he shows up on campusWilson if he shows up on campusWilson if he shows up on campuscalifornia techcalifornia techcalifornia techinstituteinstituteinstitutebut with all this the workshop was capable ofbut with all this the workshop was capable ofbut with all this the workshop was capable ofthe most striking and brilliant vision inthe most striking and brilliant vision inthe most striking and brilliant vision inIn the early 1930s he turned toIn the early 1930s he turned toIn the early 1930s he turned toa question that has been troubling me for a long timea question that has been troubling me for a long timea question that has been troubling me for a long timeastronomers appearing from time to time onastronomers appearing from time to time onastronomers appearing from time to time onin the firmament of incomprehensible bright points of newin the firmament of incomprehensible bright points of newin the firmament of incomprehensible bright points of newstars are incredible but he asked himself a questionstars are incredible but he asked himself a questionstars are incredible but he asked himself a questioncould it not be at the root of everythingcould it not be at the root of everythingcould it not be at the root of everythingthis neutron is a subatomic particle onlythis neutron is a subatomic particle onlythis neutron is a subatomic particle onlythat was discovered in England by James Chadwickthat was discovered in England by James Chadwickthat was discovered in England by James Chadwickand was a fashionable novelty at the timeand was a fashionable novelty at the timeand was a fashionable novelty at the timethe thought occurred to me that if the starthe thought occurred to me that if the starthe thought occurred to me that if the starcollapses to a density comparable tocollapses to a density comparable tocollapses to a density comparable toatomic nucleus, then as a result the following are formed:atomic nucleus, then as a result the following are formed:atomic nucleus, then as a result the following are formed:unimaginably compact object atomsunimaginably compact object atomsunimaginably compact object atomsthey will literally crush each otherthey will literally crush each otherthey will literally crush each otherelectrons widow in the nucleus formselectrons widow in the nucleus formselectrons widow in the nucleus formsneutrons will form a neutron starneutrons will form a neutron starneutrons will form a neutron starimagine a million hefty cannonballsimagine a million hefty cannonballsimagine a million hefty cannonballsnuclei compressed to the size of a toynuclei compressed to the size of a toynuclei compressed to the size of a toyglass ball and that's not quite itglass ball and that's not quite itglass ball and that's not quite itexact comparisonexact comparisonexact comparisonthe core of a neutron star is so densethe core of a neutron star is so densethe core of a neutron star is so densethat one spoon of his substance would be fun 90that one spoon of his substance would be fun 90that one spoon of his substance would be fun 90billionsbillionsbillionskilograms one spoon but that's not allkilograms one spoon but that's not allkilograms one spoon but that's not allIt dawned on the flower that during the collapse suchIt dawned on the flower that during the collapse suchIt dawned on the flower that during the collapse sucha huge number of stars stand outa huge number of stars stand outa huge number of stars stand outenergy is enough to produceenergy is enough to produceenergy is enough to producehe called the greatest explosion in the universehe called the greatest explosion in the universehe called the greatest explosion in the universesuch explosions upward new they mustsuch explosions upward new they mustsuch explosions upward new they mustwere to be and turned out to be the largestwere to be and turned out to be the largestwere to be and turned out to be the largestevents in the universeevents in the universeevents in the universeJanuary 15January 15January 151934 in the journal Physical Review1934 in the journal Physical Review1934 in the journal Physical Reviewa very brief summary appeareda very brief summary appeareda very brief summary appearedmade in the previous monthmade in the previous monthmade in the previous monthStanford University MessagesStanford University MessagesStanford University Messagesflowers and baguettes, despite the extremeflowers and baguettes, despite the extremeflowers and baguettes, despite the extremebrevity one paragraph in twenty fourbrevity one paragraph in twenty fourbrevity one paragraph in twenty fourthe lines of this summary contained a hugethe lines of this summary contained a hugethe lines of this summary contained a hugethe amount of new scientific information in itthe amount of new scientific information in itthe amount of new scientific information in itthere were the first mentions of supernovae andthere were the first mentions of supernovae andthere were the first mentions of supernovae andneutron stars were convincingly explainedneutron stars were convincingly explainedneutron stars were convincingly explainedthe educational processes were correctly assessedthe educational processes were correctly assessedthe educational processes were correctly assessedthe force of the explosion and finally howthe force of the explosion and finally howthe force of the explosion and finally howextra bonus supernova explosionsextra bonus supernova explosionsextra bonus supernova explosionswere linked to a mysterious new phenomenonwere linked to a mysterious new phenomenonwere linked to a mysterious new phenomenoncalled cosmic rayscalled cosmic rayscalled cosmic rayswhich, as was discovered shortly before,which, as was discovered shortly before,which, as was discovered shortly before,the universe is literally teeming with these ideasthe universe is literally teeming with these ideasthe universe is literally teeming with these ideaswere revolutionary, if not to say sowere revolutionary, if not to say sowere revolutionary, if not to say somoremoremoreconfirmation of existenceconfirmation of existenceconfirmation of existenceneutron stars had to waitneutron stars had to waitneutron stars had to wait34 years hypothesis of cosmic rays though34 years hypothesis of cosmic rays though34 years hypothesis of cosmic rays thoughand are considered plausible not yetand are considered plausible not yetand are considered plausible not yetconfirmed finally in general it isconfirmed finally in general it isconfirmed finally in general it issummary according to astrophysicist fromsummary according to astrophysicist fromsummary according to astrophysicist fromcalifornia techcalifornia techcalifornia techKip Thorne Institute turned out to be one ofKip Thorne Institute turned out to be one ofKip Thorne Institute turned out to be one ofthe most insightful documents inthe most insightful documents inthe most insightful documents inhistory of physics and astronomyhistory of physics and astronomyhistory of physics and astronomyIt's interesting that I hardly understood flowersIt's interesting that I hardly understood flowersIt's interesting that I hardly understood flowerswhy do all these things have to happenwhy do all these things have to happenwhy do all these things have to happenaccording to thorn he is not good enoughaccording to thorn he is not good enoughaccording to thorn he is not good enoughunderstood the laws of physics so thatunderstood the laws of physics so thatunderstood the laws of physics so thatsubstantiate your ideas flowers possessedsubstantiate your ideas flowers possessedsubstantiate your ideas flowers possessedthe ability to come up with big ideasthe ability to come up with big ideasthe ability to come up with big ideasfor others, water was mainly leftfor others, water was mainly leftfor others, water was mainly lefttheir mathematical refinement flowers alsotheir mathematical refinement flowers alsotheir mathematical refinement flowers alsowas the first to realize that there was a serious problem in the universewas the first to realize that there was a serious problem in the universewas the first to realize that there was a serious problem in the universethere is enough visible substance tothere is enough visible substance tothere is enough visible substance tohold the galaxy togetherhold the galaxy togetherhold the galaxy togetherand that there must be some otherand that there must be some otherand that there must be some othersource of gravitational influence thensource of gravitational influence thensource of gravitational influence thenwhat we now call dark matterwhat we now call dark matterwhat we now call dark matterI missed only one thing if neutronI missed only one thing if neutronI missed only one thing if neutronif you squeeze the star hard enough, it willif you squeeze the star hard enough, it willif you squeeze the star hard enough, it willbecomes so dense that evenbecomes so dense that evenbecomes so dense that evenlight cannot free itself fromlight cannot free itself fromlight cannot free itself frommonstrous gravitational pullmonstrous gravitational pullmonstrous gravitational pullit turns out to be a black hole unfortunatelyit turns out to be a black hole unfortunatelyit turns out to be a black hole unfortunatelyMost of my colleagues didn't like it beforeMost of my colleagues didn't like it beforeMost of my colleagues didn't like it beforeflowers that his ideas practically remainedflowers that his ideas practically remainedflowers that his ideas practically remainedwithout attention when five years laterwithout attention when five years laterwithout attention when five years laterthe great robert oppenheimer in an epochalthe great robert oppenheimer in an epochalthe great robert oppenheimer in an epochalThe article drew attention to neutronThe article drew attention to neutronThe article drew attention to neutronHe never mentioned the stars in his worksHe never mentioned the stars in his worksHe never mentioned the stars in his worksflowers although he had been doing that for many yearsflowers although he had been doing that for many yearsflowers although he had been doing that for many yearsthe same problem in the office a little further downthe same problem in the office a little further downthe same problem in the office a little further downcorridor and conclusions flowers relativelycorridor and conclusions flowers relativelycorridor and conclusions flowers relativelydark matter has not attracted serious attentiondark matter has not attracted serious attentiondark matter has not attracted serious attentionattention almost 40 years can onlyattention almost 40 years can onlyattention almost 40 years can onlyassume that during this time heassume that during this time heassume that during this time hedid a lot of push-ups liftingdid a lot of push-ups liftingdid a lot of push-ups liftingwe see the head to the sky surprisinglywe see the head to the sky surprisinglywe see the head to the sky surprisinglya small part of the universe with the naked eyea small part of the universe with the naked eyea small part of the universe with the naked eyeThe eye of the earth can see only 6 thousand starsThe eye of the earth can see only 6 thousand starsThe eye of the earth can see only 6 thousand starsand only about two thousand of them can beand only about two thousand of them can beand only about two thousand of them can besee at once with binocularssee at once with binocularssee at once with binocularsthe number of stars visible from one pointthe number of stars visible from one pointthe number of stars visible from one pointincreases to five ten thousand and withincreases to five ten thousand and withincreases to five ten thousand and withwith a small 2 inch telescope shewith a small 2 inch telescope shewith a small 2 inch telescope shejumps to 300 thousandjumps to 300 thousandjumps to 300 thousand16 inch telescope as evans bill16 inch telescope as evans bill16 inch telescope as evans billit's not going to the stars anymore, it's going to the galaxyit's not going to the stars anymore, it's going to the galaxyit's not going to the stars anymore, it's going to the galaxyEvans believes that from his veranda heEvans believes that from his veranda heEvans believes that from his veranda hecan see from 50 to 100 thousand galaxiescan see from 50 to 100 thousand galaxiescan see from 50 to 100 thousand galaxieseach of the tens of billions of starseach of the tens of billions of starseach of the tens of billions of starssour of course impressive but stillsour of course impressive but stillsour of course impressive but stillsupernovae remain extremely raresupernovae remain extremely raresupernovae remain extremely rarethe phenomenon of a star can burn for billionsthe phenomenon of a star can burn for billionsthe phenomenon of a star can burn for billionsyears but only 1 dies and veryyears but only 1 dies and veryyears but only 1 dies and veryquickly and only a few dying starsquickly and only a few dying starsquickly and only a few dying starsexplode most of them go out asexplode most of them go out asexplode most of them go out asbonfire at dawn of a typical galaxybonfire at dawn of a typical galaxybonfire at dawn of a typical galaxyconsisting of hundreds of billions of starsconsisting of hundreds of billions of starsconsisting of hundreds of billions of starsa supernova occurs on average once everya supernova occurs on average once everya supernova occurs on average once everytwo hundred three hundred years therefore to searchtwo hundred three hundred years therefore to searchtwo hundred three hundred years therefore to searchsupernovas are like standing onsupernovas are like standing onsupernovas are like standing onobservation deck of the empire state buildingobservation deck of the empire state buildingobservation deck of the empire state buildinglooking through a telescope at the windows of manhattanlooking through a telescope at the windows of manhattanlooking through a telescope at the windows of manhattanin the hopes of finding out howin the hopes of finding out howin the hopes of finding out howsomeone lights candles at a festivesomeone lights candles at a festivesomeone lights candles at a festivecake on the day of his coming of agecake on the day of his coming of agecake on the day of his coming of ageso when full of hopeso when full of hopeso when full of hopethe courteous priest becamethe courteous priest becamethe courteous priest becameask if there are any suitable starsask if there are any suitable starsask if there are any suitable starsmaps for searching supernovaemaps for searching supernovaemaps for searching supernovaeastronomical brothers thought that he survivedastronomical brothers thought that he survivedastronomical brothers thought that he survivedAt that time, Avansa was out of his mindAt that time, Avansa was out of his mindAt that time, Avansa was out of his mindThe 10 inch telescope is quite decent.The 10 inch telescope is quite decent.The 10 inch telescope is quite decent.size for amateur viewingsize for amateur viewingsize for amateur viewingstars but hardly suitable for seriousstars but hardly suitable for seriousstars but hardly suitable for seriouscosmology and with the help of this toolcosmology and with the help of this toolcosmology and with the help of this toolhe intended to discover one of the mosthe intended to discover one of the mosthe intended to discover one of the mostrarest phenomena in the universe throughoutrarest phenomena in the universe throughoutrarest phenomena in the universe throughouthistory of astronomy before ivanhistory of astronomy before ivanhistory of astronomy before ivanIn 1980 he took up this matterIn 1980 he took up this matterIn 1980 he took up this matterless than 60 new circus foundless than 60 new circus foundless than 60 new circus foundby that time the reality had already beenby that time the reality had already beenby that time the reality had already beenMore than 500 supernovae have been discovered todayMore than 500 supernovae have been discovered todayMore than 500 supernovae have been discovered todayregistered overregistered overregistered over6000 supernovae when in August 20016000 supernovae when in August 20016000 supernovae when in August 2001I visited him a year ago, he justI visited him a year ago, he justI visited him a year ago, he justrecorded his 34th visual discoveryrecorded his 34th visual discoveryrecorded his 34th visual discovery35 followed three months later at 36 in35 followed three months later at 36 in35 followed three months later at 36 inearly 2003early 2003early 2003according to the catalog of discovered supernovae it wasaccording to the catalog of discovered supernovae it wasaccording to the catalog of discovered supernovae it was40 wonso openings with the first 1640 wonso openings with the first 1640 wonso openings with the first 16He discovered supernovae not visually butHe discovered supernovae not visually butHe discovered supernovae not visually butaccording to the photograph of the last supernova and heaccording to the photograph of the last supernova and heaccording to the photograph of the last supernova and hewith opened its general in March 2008with opened its general in March 2008with opened its general in March 2008the score reached 48the score reached 48the score reached 48Krivonosa really had certainKrivonosa really had certainKrivonosa really had certainadvantagesadvantagesadvantagesmost observers as well as in generalmost observers as well as in generalmost observers as well as in generalmost people are in the northmost people are in the northmost people are in the northhemispheres so that a significant parthemispheres so that a significant parthemispheres so that a significant partthe sky was almost entirely in histhe sky was almost entirely in histhe sky was almost entirely in hisat least at firstat least at firstat least at firstHe also had speed andHe also had speed andHe also had speed andamazing memory large telescopesamazing memory large telescopesamazing memory large telescopesthese are pretty bulky things andthese are pretty bulky things andthese are pretty bulky things anda significant portion of their working timea significant portion of their working timea significant portion of their working timeis spent on guiding them tois spent on guiding them tois spent on guiding them tothe desired object and Vinja twirls histhe desired object and Vinja twirls histhe desired object and Vinja twirls hissmallsmallsmall16 inch telescope as tail16 inch telescope as tail16 inch telescope as tailmachine gunner in aerial combatmachine gunner in aerial combatmachine gunner in aerial combatspending no more than a couple of seconds on thatspending no more than a couple of seconds on thatspending no more than a couple of seconds on thator another area of the sky as a result ofor another area of the sky as a result ofor another area of the sky as a result ofin the evening he could probably observe hundredsin the evening he could probably observe hundredsin the evening he could probably observe hundreds4 galaxies while the big one4 galaxies while the big one4 galaxies while the big oneprofessional telescope if you're luckyprofessional telescope if you're luckyprofessional telescope if you're luckycan examine about fifty or socan examine about fifty or socan examine about fifty or sosixtysixtysixtyto look for a supernova means as a ruleto look for a supernova means as a ruleto look for a supernova means as a rulenot to findnot to findnot to find1980 to1980 to1980 toIn 1996, he made an average of two discoveriesIn 1996, he made an average of two discoveriesIn 1996, he made an average of two discoveriesnot a very big reward per yearnot a very big reward per yearnot a very big reward per yeara hundred nights of intense staringa hundred nights of intense staringa hundred nights of intense staringsky once he discovered three in 50 dayssky once he discovered three in 50 dayssky once he discovered three in 50 daysbut another time 3 years passed beforebut another time 3 years passed beforebut another time 3 years passed beforehe found onehe found onehe found oneentities in the absence of finds areentities in the absence of finds areentities in the absence of finds areknown benefit says it helpsknown benefit says it helpsknown benefit says it helpscosmologists determine the pace of evolutioncosmologists determine the pace of evolutioncosmologists determine the pace of evolutiongalaxies are one of the rare areas wheregalaxies are one of the rare areas wheregalaxies are one of the rare areas wherethe very absence of facts isthe very absence of facts isthe very absence of facts isfact if you've ever lookedfact if you've ever lookedfact if you've ever lookedpopular astronomical buildings thenpopular astronomical buildings thenpopular astronomical buildings thenshould know that they are usually full of brightshould know that they are usually full of brightshould know that they are usually full of brightcolor photographs of distant nebulae orcolor photographs of distant nebulae orcolor photographs of distant nebulae orsomething similar filled with magicsomething similar filled with magicsomething similar filled with magicwith the light of the clouds of heavenly lightswith the light of the clouds of heavenly lightswith the light of the clouds of heavenly lightsmajestically moving andmajestically moving andmajestically moving andshimmering with the finest shadesshimmering with the finest shadesshimmering with the finest shadesworkers image evans do not have withworkers image evans do not have withworkers image evans do not have withthey have nothing in common, it's justthey have nothing in common, it's justthey have nothing in common, it's justblurry black and white photos withblurry black and white photos withblurry black and white photos withsmall dots surrounded by a halosmall dots surrounded by a halosmall dots surrounded by a halothis is a star from a constellation calledthis is a star from a constellation calledthis is a star from a constellation calledseal in the galaxy is known to astronomersseal in the galaxy is known to astronomersseal in the galaxy is known to astronomerslike or jclike or jclike or jc1365 m jc means new general1365 m jc means new general1365 m jc means new generaldirectory new common directory in whichdirectory new common directory in whichdirectory new common directory in whichgalaxies were brought in then it wasgalaxies were brought in then it wasgalaxies were brought in then it wasa heavy book on someone's deska heavy book on someone's deska heavy book on someone's deskDublin is now of course a baseDublin is now of course a baseDublin is now of course a basedata light testifyingdata light testifyingdata light testifyingthe impressive death of this starthe impressive death of this starthe impressive death of this starcarried everything through without stoppingcarried everything through without stoppingcarried everything through without stoppingspace 60 million years so farspace 60 million years so farspace 60 million years so farone night in august 2001one night in august 2001one night in august 2001reached the earth as a glimmer of lightreached the earth as a glimmer of lightreached the earth as a glimmer of lighta tiny clearing in the night sky anda tiny clearing in the night sky anda tiny clearing in the night sky andOf course Robert Evans noticed himOf course Robert Evans noticed himOf course Robert Evans noticed himits own on the burnt smell of eucalyptus andits own on the burnt smell of eucalyptus andits own on the burnt smell of eucalyptus andmememeit brings special satisfactionit brings special satisfactionit brings special satisfactionsays advance when you think that you flewsays advance when you think that you flewsays advance when you think that you flewthrough space millions of years lightthrough space millions of years lightthrough space millions of years lightreaches the ground just at that momentreaches the ground just at that momentreaches the ground just at that momentwhen someone is looking at the right onewhen someone is looking at the right onewhen someone is looking at the right onethe area of the sky seems important tothe area of the sky seems important tothe area of the sky seems important tothere were events of such magnitudethere were events of such magnitudethere were events of such magnitudewitnessedwitnessedwitnessedthe role of supernovae is not limited at allthe role of supernovae is not limited at allthe role of supernovae is not limited at allin order to evoke a sense of surprise andin order to evoke a sense of surprise andin order to evoke a sense of surprise andadmirationadmirationadmirationthey are divided into several types one ofthey are divided into several types one ofthey are divided into several types one ofwhich by the way were discovered by Evans and anotherwhich by the way were discovered by Evans and anotherwhich by the way were discovered by Evans and anotherknown as type 1a supernovae are importantknown as type 1a supernovae are importantknown as type 1a supernovae are importantfor astronomy because supernovaefor astronomy because supernovaefor astronomy because supernovaethis type always explode the same waythis type always explode the same waythis type always explode the same wayhaving the same critical masshaving the same critical masshaving the same critical massso they can be used asso they can be used asso they can be used asstandard candles measuring standardsstandard candles measuring standardsstandard candles measuring standardsthe brightness of which and thus andthe brightness of which and thus andthe brightness of which and thus andrelative distance can berelative distance can berelative distance can bedetermine the rate of expansion of the universedetermine the rate of expansion of the universedetermine the rate of expansion of the universeIn 1987, the astrophysicist Sol Namazur U andIn 1987, the astrophysicist Sol Namazur U andIn 1987, the astrophysicist Sol Namazur U andevil damage from sky labs in berkeleyevil damage from sky labs in berkeleyevil damage from sky labs in berkeleythe state of california needed morethe state of california needed morethe state of california needed moresupernovae type 1 and what did the usual ones givesupernovae type 1 and what did the usual ones givesupernovae type 1 and what did the usual ones givevisual observation and he set a goalvisual observation and he set a goalvisual observation and he set a goalfind a more systematic method of finding themfind a more systematic method of finding themfind a more systematic method of finding themin 2011, then the mother-of-pearl becamein 2011, then the mother-of-pearl becamein 2011, then the mother-of-pearl becameNobel Prize laureate in physicsNobel Prize laureate in physicsNobel Prize laureate in physicsfor the discovery of accelerated phenomenafor the discovery of accelerated phenomenafor the discovery of accelerated phenomenaexpansion of the universe made byexpansion of the universe made byexpansion of the universe made byobservation of distant supernovae inobservation of distant supernovae inobservation of distant supernovae in1999 and confirmed1999 and confirmed1999 and confirmednumerousnumerousnumeroussupernovae discovered later asupernovae discovered later asupernovae discovered later aalso other observational dataalso other observational dataalso other observational dataPir Muhtar developed an ingenious systemPir Muhtar developed an ingenious systemPir Muhtar developed an ingenious systemusing the most sophisticated computersusing the most sophisticated computersusing the most sophisticated computersand charge-coupled devicesand charge-coupled devicesand charge-coupled devicesthere are great digital camerasthere are great digital camerasthere are great digital camerasthus the search for supernovae wasthus the search for supernovae wasthus the search for supernovae wasautomatedautomatedautomatedtelescopes can now make thousandstelescopes can now make thousandstelescopes can now make thousandspictures giving the computer the opportunitypictures giving the computer the opportunitypictures giving the computer the opportunityfind the characteristic bright spots youfind the characteristic bright spots youfind the characteristic bright spots youactive on supernova explosionsactive on supernova explosionsactive on supernova explosionsuntil recently, not all supernovasuntil recently, not all supernovasuntil recently, not all supernovascould be identified in digital imagescould be identified in digital imagescould be identified in digital imagesautomatically the person dealt with thisautomatically the person dealt with thisautomatically the person dealt with thisthe task was much better even launchedthe task was much better even launchedthe task was much better even launchedproject hand on elena and in the hands of whichproject hand on elena and in the hands of whichproject hand on elena and in the hands of whichschoolchildren can take part in the searchschoolchildren can take part in the searchschoolchildren can take part in the searchsupernovae from galaxy images participationsupernovae from galaxy images participationsupernovae from galaxy images participationHowever, in recent years, the effectivenessHowever, in recent years, the effectivenessHowever, in recent years, the effectivenessautomatic recognition of supernovaeautomatic recognition of supernovaeautomatic recognition of supernovaehas increased significantly and fans are no longerhas increased significantly and fans are no longerhas increased significantly and fans are no longercan compete with networkscan compete with networkscan compete with networksrobot telescopesrobot telescopesrobot telescopesin five years using the newin five years using the newin five years using the newmother-of-pearl technologies with colleaguesmother-of-pearl technologies with colleaguesmother-of-pearl technologies with colleagues42 supernovae discovered in berkeley42 supernovae discovered in berkeley42 supernovae discovered in berkeleynow even amateurs find supernovanow even amateurs find supernovanow even amateurs find supernovawith the help of CCD matrices it is possible towith the help of CCD matrices it is possible towith the help of CCD matrices it is possible topoint the telescope at the sky yourself sitpoint the telescope at the sky yourself sitpoint the telescope at the sky yourself sitShe spoke with a bit of anxiety in front of the TVShe spoke with a bit of anxiety in front of the TVShe spoke with a bit of anxiety in front of the TVEvans this destroys all the romanceEvans this destroys all the romanceEvans this destroys all the romanceI asked if this lesson was causing any problemsI asked if this lesson was causing any problemsI asked if this lesson was causing any problemshe is tempted to take up arms with a new onehe is tempted to take up arms with a new onehe is tempted to take up arms with a new onehe fires the technician, he replied, I'm toohe fires the technician, he replied, I'm toohe fires the technician, he replied, I'm tooI like to work in my own way, besides, heI like to work in my own way, besides, heI like to work in my own way, besides, henodded at the photo of his latestnodded at the photo of his latestnodded at the photo of his latestsupernovas smiled at me sometimes thoughsupernovas smiled at me sometimes thoughsupernovas smiled at me sometimes thoughmanage to get around themmanage to get around themmanage to get around themScottish amateur astronomer TomScottish amateur astronomer TomScottish amateur astronomer TomBowles built an observatory with 3Bowles built an observatory with 3Bowles built an observatory with 3telescopes robots that constantlytelescopes robots that constantlytelescopes robots that constantlyscans the sky for supernovaescans the sky for supernovaescans the sky for supernovaeIt was only in 2003 that he becameIt was only in 2003 that he becameIt was only in 2003 that he becamepioneerpioneerpioneerthree hundred supernovae in total to his creditthree hundred supernovae in total to his creditthree hundred supernovae in total to his credit148 exploded stars thus he148 exploded stars thus he148 exploded stars thus hetook over the title from Robert Adamstook over the title from Robert Adamstook over the title from Robert Adamschampion among amateurs in openingchampion among amateurs in openingchampion among amateurs in openingsupernova ball continues to searchsupernova ball continues to searchsupernova ball continues to searchsupernovae although in recent years the ratesupernovae although in recent years the ratesupernovae although in recent years the rateits opening has been slightly reduced due toits opening has been slightly reduced due toits opening has been slightly reduced due tocompetition from professionalscompetition from professionalscompetition from professionalslaboratorieslaboratorieslaboratoriesnaturally the question arises what will happennaturally the question arises what will happennaturally the question arises what will happenif a star explodes nearby like usif a star explodes nearby like usif a star explodes nearby like uswe already know our nearest starwe already know our nearest starwe already know our nearest starAlpha Centauri's neighbor is at 4Alpha Centauri's neighbor is at 4Alpha Centauri's neighbor is at 4a whole 3 tenths of a light year from usa whole 3 tenths of a light year from usa whole 3 tenths of a light year from usI imagined myself what if it happenedI imagined myself what if it happenedI imagined myself what if it happenedexplosion then we would have 4.3 years toexplosion then we would have 4.3 years toexplosion then we would have 4.3 years towatch as the light of this majesticwatch as the light of this majesticwatch as the light of this majesticthe phenomenon spreads across the sky as ifthe phenomenon spreads across the sky as ifthe phenomenon spreads across the sky as ifspilling out of a giant can thatspilling out of a giant can thatspilling out of a giant can thatit will be if it comes to 4 years and 4 monthsit will be if it comes to 4 years and 4 monthsit will be if it comes to 4 years and 4 monthswatch the end approaching 40watch the end approaching 40watch the end approaching 40knowing that when it comes, nothing comes from usknowing that when it comes, nothing comes from usknowing that when it comes, nothing comes from uswill there be people still be therewill there be people still be therewill there be people still be thereWill farmers go to work?Will farmers go to work?Will farmers go to work?Will anyone grow crops?Will anyone grow crops?Will anyone grow crops?deliver it to the store and news aboutdeliver it to the store and news aboutdeliver it to the store and news aboutsuch an event is spread withsuch an event is spread withsuch an event is spread withthe speed of light but at the same speedthe speed of light but at the same speedthe speed of light but at the same speedspreads and is destructivespreads and is destructivespreads and is destructiveaction so that you learn about it andaction so that you learn about it andaction so that you learn about it andyou will die at the same moment but notyou will die at the same moment but notyou will die at the same moment but notDon't worry because it doesn'tDon't worry because it doesn'tDon't worry because it doesn'tit will happen that the wave of the supernova explosionit will happen that the wave of the supernova explosionit will happen that the wave of the supernova explosionyou were ruined, he explained, you need ityou were ruined, he explained, you need ityou were ruined, he explained, you need itwere ridiculously close, let's say, inwere ridiculously close, let's say, inwere ridiculously close, let's say, inwithin approximately 10 light yearswithin approximately 10 light yearswithin approximately 10 light yearsthe danger would be posed by various speciesthe danger would be posed by various speciesthe danger would be posed by various speciesradiation cosmic rays and so onradiation cosmic rays and so onradiation cosmic rays and so onsomething like that would cause astonishmentsomething like that would cause astonishmentsomething like that would cause astonishmentpolar lightspolar lightspolar lightscurtains shimmering across the sky andcurtains shimmering across the sky andcurtains shimmering across the sky andghostly light for good it would not beghostly light for good it would not beghostly light for good it would not bebrought everything that was possible to create suchbrought everything that was possible to create suchbrought everything that was possible to create suchthe spectacle might as well sweep awaythe spectacle might as well sweep awaythe spectacle might as well sweep awaymagnetosphere located high abovemagnetosphere located high abovemagnetosphere located high abovethe earth's magnetic belt which in ordinarythe earth's magnetic belt which in ordinarythe earth's magnetic belt which in ordinaryconditions protects us hereconditions protects us hereconditions protects us hereultraviolet rays and othersultraviolet rays and othersultraviolet rays and otherscosmic and there somewhere magnetospherecosmic and there somewhere magnetospherecosmic and there somewhere magnetosphereanyone who would have had a misfortuneanyone who would have had a misfortuneanyone who would have had a misfortunebeing out in the open sun is quitebeing out in the open sun is quitebeing out in the open sun is quitewould soon look like a burnt pizzawould soon look like a burnt pizzawould soon look like a burnt pizzafrom ultraviolet and otherfrom ultraviolet and otherfrom ultraviolet and otherelectromagnetic radiationelectromagnetic radiationelectromagnetic radiationIt's not the magnetosphere that protects us, but the atmosphereIt's not the magnetosphere that protects us, but the atmosphereIt's not the magnetosphere that protects us, but the atmospheremagnetosphere only from charged particlesmagnetosphere only from charged particlesmagnetosphere only from charged particlesand not high energy likeand not high energy likeand not high energy likeemit the sun however at close rangeemit the sun however at close rangeemit the sun however at close rangesupernova explosion no atmosphere nosupernova explosion no atmosphere nosupernova explosion no atmosphere nomagnetosphere will not be able to protect bluemagnetosphere will not be able to protect bluemagnetosphere will not be able to protect bluefrom hard radiationfrom hard radiationfrom hard radiationthe reason why we can be more orthe reason why we can be more orthe reason why we can be more orless sure what it isless sure what it isless sure what it iswill happen in our corner of the galaxywill happen in our corner of the galaxywill happen in our corner of the galaxyhe says the cake itself consists of thathe says the cake itself consists of thathe says the cake itself consists of thatfor the appearance of a supernova first of allfor the appearance of a supernova first of allfor the appearance of a supernova first of alla specific type of star is requireda specific type of star is requireda specific type of star is requiredclaiming this star candidateclaiming this star candidateclaiming this star candidateshould be once every ten or twentyshould be once every ten or twentyshould be once every ten or twentymore massive than our sun and we havemore massive than our sun and we havemore massive than our sun and we havenearbynearbynearbythere is nothing of the required size of the universe tothere is nothing of the required size of the universe tothere is nothing of the required size of the universe tofortunately there is enough spacefortunately there is enough spacefortunately there is enough spacethe closest possible candidate addedthe closest possible candidate addedthe closest possible candidate addedhe is betelgeuse what and possiblehe is betelgeuse what and possiblehe is betelgeuse what and possiblespikes and bursts over many yearsspikes and bursts over many yearsspikes and bursts over many yearsyears indicates that they haveyears indicates that they haveyears indicates that they havethere are some interesting instabilities in the placethere are some interesting instabilities in the placethere are some interesting instabilities in the placeHowever, Betelgeuse is located at a distance from usHowever, Betelgeuse is located at a distance from usHowever, Betelgeuse is located at a distance from usfive hundred light years away only half a dozenfive hundred light years away only half a dozenfive hundred light years away only half a dozenonce the limits are documentedonce the limits are documentedonce the limits are documentedwitnessed supernova historieswitnessed supernova historieswitnessed supernova historiesflared close enough to beflared close enough to beflared close enough to bevisible to the naked eyevisible to the naked eyevisible to the naked eyeOne of these explosions in 1054 resulted inOne of these explosions in 1054 resulted inOne of these explosions in 1054 resulted into the formation of the Crab Nebulato the formation of the Crab Nebulato the formation of the Crab Nebulaanother time inanother time inanother time inIn 1604, a star was formed soIn 1604, a star was formed soIn 1604, a star was formed soIt was so bright that it could be seen during the day for three weeksIt was so bright that it could be seen during the day for three weeksIt was so bright that it could be seen during the day for three weeksthe very last one was inthe very last one was inthe very last one was inIn 1987, a supernova then lit up inIn 1987, a supernova then lit up inIn 1987, a supernova then lit up inregion of space known as the Big Bangregion of space known as the Big Bangregion of space known as the Big BangMagellanic cloud but she was having a hard timeMagellanic cloud but she was having a hard timeMagellanic cloud but she was having a hard timevisible only in the southern hemisphere andvisible only in the southern hemisphere andvisible only in the southern hemisphere andwas located at a very safe distance from uswas located at a very safe distance from uswas located at a very safe distance from usdistancedistancedistance169 thousand light years169 thousand light years169 thousand light yearssupernovae slow us down fundamentallysupernovae slow us down fundamentallysupernovae slow us down fundamentallymeaning and in another important sense frommeaning and in another important sense frommeaning and in another important sense fromif we weren't here we wouldn't be talking about thatif we weren't here we wouldn't be talking about thatif we weren't here we wouldn't be talking about thatthe big bang led to the lung billthe big bang led to the lung billthe big bang led to the lung billgases but not heavy elements the latestgases but not heavy elements the latestgases but not heavy elements the latestappeared later but for a long time no oneappeared later but for a long time no oneappeared later but for a long time no oneI imagined how it happened, the thing isI imagined how it happened, the thing isI imagined how it happened, the thing isthat something really hot is neededthat something really hot is neededthat something really hot is neededeven hotter than the middle of the hottest starseven hotter than the middle of the hottest starseven hotter than the middle of the hottest starsto forge carbon iron and othersto forge carbon iron and othersto forge carbon iron and otherselements without which we would be greatelements without which we would be greatelements without which we would be greatto our chagrin absolutely freeto our chagrin absolutely freeto our chagrin absolutely freethe explanation came in the form of supernovae andthe explanation came in the form of supernovae andthe explanation came in the form of supernovae andOnly one Englishman thought of thisOnly one Englishman thought of thisOnly one Englishman thought of thisa cosmologist who is in many ways similar in hisa cosmologist who is in many ways similar in hisa cosmologist who is in many ways similar in hismanners on Fritz flowers to him wasmanners on Fritz flowers to him wasmanners on Fritz flowers to him wasa Yorkshireman named Fred in his obituarya Yorkshireman named Fred in his obituarya Yorkshireman named Fred in his obituarymagazine today scientist died in 2001magazine today scientist died in 2001magazine today scientist died in 2001Pavel is named by cosmologists and dust places andPavel is named by cosmologists and dust places andPavel is named by cosmologists and dust places andhe really was bothhe really was bothhe really was bothspoke with obituaries most of his lifespoke with obituaries most of his lifespoke with obituaries most of his lifewas involved in controversy and put his ownwas involved in controversy and put his ownwas involved in controversy and put his ownsignature under all sorts of nonsense for examplesignature under all sorts of nonsense for examplesignature under all sorts of nonsense for examplehe claimed without anyhe claimed without anyhe claimed without anyevidence that it is kept as a treasureevidence that it is kept as a treasureevidence that it is kept as a treasureat the Natural History Museumat the Natural History Museumat the Natural History MuseumfossilfossilfossilArchaeopteryx is a fake likeArchaeopteryx is a fake likeArchaeopteryx is a fake likepilt yes narrow mystification to the greatpilt yes narrow mystification to the greatpilt yes narrow mystification to the greatto the wrath of museum paleontologiststo the wrath of museum paleontologiststo the wrath of museum paleontologistsI had to fight off this for many daysI had to fight off this for many daysI had to fight off this for many daystelephone calls from newspapermen to everythingtelephone calls from newspapermen to everythingtelephone calls from newspapermen to everythingpeacepeacepeace1908 1911 years near saw down in1908 1911 years near saw down in1908 1911 years near saw down inSussex CountySussex CountySussex Countyfragments were found in ukfragments were found in ukfragments were found in ukskulls and jaws that are like a longskulls and jaws that are like a longskulls and jaws that are like a longtime was considered to belong to the beingtime was considered to belong to the beingtime was considered to belong to the beingintermediate between a monkey andintermediate between a monkey andintermediate between a monkey andhumanhumanhumanHowever, in the 1950s, employeesHowever, in the 1950s, employeesHowever, in the 1950s, employeeschemical experiments were carried out in the British Museumchemical experiments were carried out in the British Museumchemical experiments were carried out in the British Museumtests that showed he drowned in Downstests that showed he drowned in Downstests that showed he drowned in Downski samples are finely craftedki samples are finely craftedki samples are finely craftedhe also considered the fact that on the ground it was a fakehe also considered the fact that on the ground it was a fakehe also considered the fact that on the ground it was a fakeIt wasn't just life that was brought from spaceIt wasn't just life that was brought from spaceIt wasn't just life that was brought from spacebut also many diseases such as flubut also many diseases such as flubut also many diseases such as fluand the bubonic plague once expressedand the bubonic plague once expressedand the bubonic plague once expressedthe assumption that in the process of evolutionthe assumption that in the process of evolutionthe assumption that in the process of evolutionpeople appeared with a protruding nosepeople appeared with a protruding nosepeople appeared with a protruding nosedownward facing nostril or into itdownward facing nostril or into itdownward facing nostril or into itspace pathogens did not enterspace pathogens did not enterspace pathogens did not enterorganismsorganismsorganismsor but he being in a playful mood inor but he being in a playful mood inor but he being in a playful mood inradio broadcast time in 1952 was inventedradio broadcast time in 1952 was inventedradio broadcast time in 1952 was inventedthe term big bang he noted that ourthe term big bang he noted that ourthe term big bang he noted that ourphysical representations cannot in any wayphysical representations cannot in any wayphysical representations cannot in any wayexplain why everything that exists is collected inexplain why everything that exists is collected inexplain why everything that exists is collected inthe point should suddenly start the effectthe point should suddenly start the effectthe point should suddenly start the effectexpand oil preferred theoryexpand oil preferred theoryexpand oil preferred theorysteady statesteady statesteady stateby which the universe constantlyby which the universe constantlyby which the universe constantlyexpands and as it expandsexpands and as it expandsexpands and as it expandshe continuously creates new matterhe continuously creates new matterhe continuously creates new matteralso understood that if a staralso understood that if a staralso understood that if a starit shrinks catastrophicallyit shrinks catastrophicallyit shrinks catastrophicallyreleases a huge amount of heatreleases a huge amount of heatreleases a huge amount of heatheated to 100 million degrees andheated to 100 million degrees andheated to 100 million degrees andeven more and that's enough toeven more and that's enough toeven more and that's enough totrigger the formation of heavy elementstrigger the formation of heavy elementstrigger the formation of heavy elementsa process called nucleosynthesisa process called nucleosynthesisa process called nucleosynthesisnuclear fusion is all thermonuclearnuclear fusion is all thermonuclearnuclear fusion is all thermonuclearreactions leading to the formation of nuclei morereactions leading to the formation of nuclei morereactions leading to the formation of nuclei moreheavy elements from light nucleoheavy elements from light nucleoheavy elements from light nucleosingles starts with birthsingles starts with birthsingles starts with birththe universe continues throughoutthe universe continues throughoutthe universe continues throughoutthroughout the life of a star and during an explosionthroughout the life of a star and during an explosionthroughout the life of a star and during an explosionOnly a small amount of supernova is synthesizedOnly a small amount of supernova is synthesizedOnly a small amount of supernova is synthesizedamount of the heaviest elementsamount of the heaviest elementsamount of the heaviest elementsheavier than iron and the most important productsheavier than iron and the most important productsheavier than iron and the most important productsstellar nucleosynthesisstellar nucleosynthesisstellar nucleosynthesisscattered in the space where they arescattered in the space where they arescattered in the space where they aremay become part of the new ones being bornmay become part of the new ones being bornmay become part of the new ones being bornstars and planets1957 working together with others1957 working together with others1957 working together with othersscientists oil showed how during the explosionsscientists oil showed how during the explosionsscientists oil showed how during the explosionssupernovae produce heavy elementssupernovae produce heavy elementssupernovae produce heavy elementsfor this work one of the collaboratorsfor this work one of the collaboratorsfor this work one of the collaboratorshim scientists william alphard a allurehim scientists william alphard a allurehim scientists william alphard a allurereceived the Nobel Prize a a l kreceived the Nobel Prize a a l kreceived the Nobel Prize a a l kour common shame did not receive according toour common shame did not receive according toour common shame did not receive according tohoyle's theories exploding starhoyle's theories exploding starhoyle's theories exploding starreleases enough energy to createreleases enough energy to createreleases enough energy to createall new elements and spraying them intoall new elements and spraying them intoall new elements and spraying them intospace where they form gas cloudsspace where they form gas cloudsspace where they form gas cloudsinterstellar medium which ultimatelyinterstellar medium which ultimatelyinterstellar medium which ultimatelyeventually condenses into new solareventually condenses into new solareventually condenses into new solarsystems with the advent of these theoreticalsystems with the advent of these theoreticalsystems with the advent of these theoreticalit finally became possible to create calculationsit finally became possible to create calculationsit finally became possible to create calculationsa plausible scenario for our appearancea plausible scenario for our appearancea plausible scenario for our appearancehere it is now considered that we knowhere it is now considered that we knowhere it is now considered that we knownext about 4.6 billion years agonext about 4.6 billion years agonext about 4.6 billion years agothat place in outer space wherethat place in outer space wherethat place in outer space wherewe are nowwe are nowwe are nowa huge one formed and began to shrinka huge one formed and began to shrinka huge one formed and began to shrinka vortex of gas and dust 24 mm in diametera vortex of gas and dust 24 mm in diametera vortex of gas and dust 24 mm in diameterbillion kilometers almost all 99.9billion kilometers almost all 99.9billion kilometers almost all 99.9percent of the solar system's mass went intopercent of the solar system's mass went intopercent of the solar system's mass went intocreation of the sun from the remaining freecreation of the sun from the remaining freecreation of the sun from the remaining freefloat substances 2 microscopicfloat substances 2 microscopicfloat substances 2 microscopicparticlesparticlesparticlesgot close enough to begot close enough to begot close enough to beattracted to each otherattracted to each otherattracted to each otherit was by electrostatic forcesit was by electrostatic forcesit was by electrostatic forcesthe moment of conception of our planet is the samethe moment of conception of our planet is the samethe moment of conception of our planet is the samewas happening all over the nascentwas happening all over the nascentwas happening all over the nascentsolar system machines andsolar system machines andsolar system machines anddust particles formed more and moredust particles formed more and moredust particles formed more and morelarge lumps eventually stoneslarge lumps eventually stoneslarge lumps eventually stonesgrew to such a size thatgrew to such a size thatgrew to such a size thatto be called the planet winters without endto be called the planet winters without endto be called the planet winters without endcolliding with each other rather thancolliding with each other rather thancolliding with each other rather thanfell apart and came back together againfell apart and came back together againfell apart and came back together againin a wide variety of combinations but inin a wide variety of combinations but inin a wide variety of combinations but inin every clash there was a winner andin every clash there was a winner andin every clash there was a winner andsome of them became quitesome of them became quitesome of them became quitebig ones to dominate over thatbig ones to dominate over thatbig ones to dominate over thatthe orbit in which they moved all thisthe orbit in which they moved all thisthe orbit in which they moved all thisit happened surprisingly quicklyit happened surprisingly quicklyit happened surprisingly quicklya tiny cluster of particles grew intoa tiny cluster of particles grew intoa tiny cluster of particles grew intothe embryo of the planet is hundreds of meters in diameterthe embryo of the planet is hundreds of meters in diameterthe embryo of the planet is hundreds of meters in diameterIt only took a few kilometersIt only took a few kilometersIt only took a few kilometerstens of thousands of years in just 200tens of thousands of years in just 200tens of thousands of years in just 200millions of years and possibly even faster earthmillions of years and possibly even faster earthmillions of years and possibly even faster earthin fact, I am fully formed, even though Iin fact, I am fully formed, even though Iin fact, I am fully formed, even though Iwas still in a molten statewas still in a molten statewas still in a molten statewas subjected to continuous bombardmentwas subjected to continuous bombardmentwas subjected to continuous bombardmentfloating around with remainsfloating around with remainsfloating around with remainsconstruction waste at this momentconstruction waste at this momentconstruction waste at this momentapproximately 4.4 billion years agoapproximately 4.4 billion years agoapproximately 4.4 billion years agoAn object the size of Mars has collided with the EarthAn object the size of Mars has collided with the EarthAn object the size of Mars has collided with the Earthhaving emitted enough substance tohaving emitted enough substance tohaving emitted enough substance tocreation of the accompanying sphere of the mooncreation of the accompanying sphere of the mooncreation of the accompanying sphere of the moonIt is believed that the ejected substance isIt is believed that the ejected substance isIt is believed that the ejected substance isseveral weeks gathered into one looseseveral weeks gathered into one looseseveral weeks gathered into one looselump and over the course of a year a spherical shape was formedlump and over the course of a year a spherical shape was formedlump and over the course of a year a spherical shape was formedstone theme which has been around ever sincestone theme which has been around ever sincestone theme which has been around ever sincemost of the moon accompanies usmost of the moon accompanies usmost of the moon accompanies ussubstances come from the outer layerssubstances come from the outer layerssubstances come from the outer layersthe earth they are from the core that's why on the moon it is like thatthe earth they are from the core that's why on the moon it is like thatthe earth they are from the core that's why on the moon it is like thatlittle iron while we have a lot of itlittle iron while we have a lot of itlittle iron while we have a lot of itby the way this theory always presents liby the way this theory always presents liby the way this theory always presents linot as the newest one, but as the verynot as the newest one, but as the verynot as the newest one, but as the veryIn fact, it was first put forwardIn fact, it was first put forwardIn fact, it was first put forwardReginald models at HarvardReginald models at HarvardReginald models at HarvardIn the 1940s, the only one reallyIn the 1940s, the only one reallyIn the 1940s, the only one reallynew and here are the people who devote andnew and here are the people who devote andnew and here are the people who devote andsome attention when the earth was onlysome attention when the earth was onlysome attention when the earth was onlyabout a third of its final sizeabout a third of its final sizeabout a third of its final sizeshe may have already begun to formshe may have already begun to formshe may have already begun to formatmosphere mainly of carbon dioxideatmosphere mainly of carbon dioxideatmosphere mainly of carbon dioxidenitrogen methane and sulfur gases are unlikely to be thosenitrogen methane and sulfur gases are unlikely to be thosenitrogen methane and sulfur gases are unlikely to be thosesubstances that we associate withsubstances that we associate withsubstances that we associate withlife and yet it is precisely from thislife and yet it is precisely from thislife and yet it is precisely from thispoisonous brewpoisonous brewpoisonous brewlife was formed carbon dioxidelife was formed carbon dioxidelife was formed carbon dioxidehas powerful greenhouse propertieshas powerful greenhouse propertieshas powerful greenhouse propertiesit turned out to be very handy because init turned out to be very handy because init turned out to be very handy because inthat distant time the sun was shiningthat distant time the sun was shiningthat distant time the sun was shiningsignificantly weaker than any greenhousesignificantly weaker than any greenhousesignificantly weaker than any greenhousethe effect of the earth could well be constantthe effect of the earth could well be constantthe effect of the earth could well be constantstay frozen and life is possiblestay frozen and life is possiblestay frozen and life is possiblethere would simply be nothing to cling to butthere would simply be nothing to cling to butthere would simply be nothing to cling to butone way or another life succeededone way or another life succeededone way or another life succeedednext 500 million years young earthnext 500 million years young earthnext 500 million years young earthstill not weakened shellingstill not weakened shellingstill not weakened shellingcomets, meteorites and all sorts of othercomets, meteorites and all sorts of othercomets, meteorites and all sorts of otherspace debris that broughtspace debris that broughtspace debris that broughtwater to fill the oceans and componentswater to fill the oceans and componentswater to fill the oceans and componentsnecessary for successful emergencenecessary for successful emergencenecessary for successful emergencelife environment waslife environment waslife environment wasextremely hostile but lifeextremely hostile but lifeextremely hostile but lifesomehow developed tinysomehow developed tinysomehow developed tinythe lump of chemicals twitched andthe lump of chemicals twitched andthe lump of chemicals twitched andcame to life four billion years later peoplecame to life four billion years later peoplecame to life four billion years later peoplestarted asking questions about how all this isstarted asking questions about how all this isstarted asking questions about how all this ishappenedhappenedhappenedthis world was shrouded in deep darkness yesthis world was shrouded in deep darkness yesthis world was shrouded in deep darkness yesthere will be light and here comes Newtonthere will be light and here comes Newtonthere will be light and here comes Newtonalexander pope epitaph was intendedalexander pope epitaph was intendedalexander pope epitaph was intendedSir Isaac NewtonSir Isaac NewtonSir Isaac Newtonif you had to choose the mostif you had to choose the mostif you had to choose the mostunsuccessful scientific journey of allunsuccessful scientific journey of allunsuccessful scientific journey of allthere is nothing worse than Peruvian timesthere is nothing worse than Peruvian timesthere is nothing worse than Peruvian timesexpedition of the French royalexpedition of the French royalexpedition of the French royalacademy of sciencesacademy of sciencesacademy of sciencesIn 1735 you probably wouldn't have found this.In 1735 you probably wouldn't have found this.In 1735 you probably wouldn't have found this.there was a group of scientists seeking itthere was a group of scientists seeking itthere was a group of scientists seeking itadventures under the guidance of a hydrographeradventures under the guidance of a hydrographeradventures under the guidance of a hydrographerpierre god and military mathematician ball forpierre god and military mathematician ball forpierre god and military mathematician ball formaria belokon domino who wentmaria belokon domino who wentmaria belokon domino who wentin Peru to conduct triangulations he herin Peru to conduct triangulations he herin Peru to conduct triangulations he herdistance measurements in the andesdistance measurements in the andesdistance measurements in the andesthe expedition leader was locanda minthe expedition leader was locanda minthe expedition leader was locanda minthe astronomer was responsible for the scientific partthe astronomer was responsible for the scientific partthe astronomer was responsible for the scientific partprofitable and pierre boogie however godinprofitable and pierre boogie however godinprofitable and pierre boogie however godinsoon separated from the main partysoon separated from the main partysoon separated from the main partydue to differences in working methods adue to differences in working methods adue to differences in working methods awas later convicted of embezzlementwas later convicted of embezzlementwas later convicted of embezzlementhe also received from Francehe also received from Francehe also received from Francerefused to share with colleaguesrefused to share with colleaguesrefused to share with colleaguesthe results obtainedthe results obtainedthe results obtainedtriangulation is the method chosen by the expeditiontriangulation is the method chosen by the expeditiontriangulation is the method chosen by the expeditionthe measurements werethe measurements werethe measurements werea common technique based ona common technique based ona common technique based ona well-known geometric fact if youa well-known geometric fact if youa well-known geometric fact if youdo you know the length of one side of the triangledo you know the length of one side of the triangledo you know the length of one side of the triangleand the values of 2 of its angles then all the restand the values of 2 of its angles then all the restand the values of 2 of its angles then all the restyou can calculate the size of ityou can calculate the size of ityou can calculate the size of itgetting up from the chair let's assume asgetting up from the chair let's assume asgetting up from the chair let's assume asan example of what we decided to find outan example of what we decided to find outan example of what we decided to find outthe distance to the moon is the first thing forthe distance to the moon is the first thing forthe distance to the moon is the first thing forTo apply the triangulation method we mustTo apply the triangulation method we mustTo apply the triangulation method we mustset the distance between us I will sayset the distance between us I will sayset the distance between us I will sayyou stay in paris and iyou stay in paris and iyou stay in paris and iI'm going to Moscow and we bothI'm going to Moscow and we bothI'm going to Moscow and we bothlet's look at the moon at the same time now iflet's look at the moon at the same time now iflet's look at the moon at the same time now ifyou mentally connect the three main linesyou mentally connect the three main linesyou mentally connect the three main linesthe objects of our task, that is, you, me andthe objects of our task, that is, you, me andthe objects of our task, that is, you, me andthe moon then a triangle is formed measurethe moon then a triangle is formed measurethe moon then a triangle is formed measurethe length of the baseline between you and me andthe length of the baseline between you and me andthe length of the baseline between you and me andthe size of both angles, the rest is easythe size of both angles, the rest is easythe size of both angles, the rest is easycalculate since the sum of the internalcalculate since the sum of the internalcalculate since the sum of the internalthe angles of a triangle are always 180the angles of a triangle are always 180the angles of a triangle are always 180degrees then I know the sum of two angles youdegrees then I know the sum of two angles youdegrees then I know the sum of two angles youyou will be able to instantly calculate the third ayou will be able to instantly calculate the third ayou will be able to instantly calculate the third amore precisely, knowledge of the shape of the triangle and its lengthmore precisely, knowledge of the shape of the triangle and its lengthmore precisely, knowledge of the shape of the triangle and its lengthone of its sides will tell you the lengthone of its sides will tell you the lengthone of its sides will tell you the lengththe other two parties are essentially preciselythe other two parties are essentially preciselythe other two parties are essentially preciselyThis method was used in 150 BCThis method was used in 150 BCThis method was used in 150 BCAD Greek astronomer HipparchusAD Greek astronomer HipparchusAD Greek astronomer HipparchusNicene to determine the distance fromNicene to determine the distance fromNicene to determine the distance fromearth to the moon on the surface of the earthearth to the moon on the surface of the earthearth to the moon on the surface of the earthprinciples of triangulation and shootingprinciples of triangulation and shootingprinciples of triangulation and shootingonly the triangles remain the sameonly the triangles remain the sameonly the triangles remain the samedo not reach space but lie side by sidedo not reach space but lie side by sidedo not reach space but lie side by sideon the map to measure the degree of the meridianon the map to measure the degree of the meridianon the map to measure the degree of the meridiansurveyors build a kind of chainsurveyors build a kind of chainsurveyors build a kind of chaintriangles stretching across the terraintriangles stretching across the terraintriangles stretching across the terrainat that time people finally took possessionat that time people finally took possessionat that time people finally took possessiona strong desire to understand and the eartha strong desire to understand and the eartha strong desire to understand and the earthdetermine her age mass place wheredetermine her age mass place wheredetermine her age mass place whereit hangs in outer space andit hangs in outer space andit hangs in outer space andfind out how it arose goalfind out how it arose goalfind out how it arose goalThe French group's mission was toThe French group's mission was toThe French group's mission was tocontribute to solving the length issuecontribute to solving the length issuecontribute to solving the length issuethe circumference of the planet by measuring the lengththe circumference of the planet by measuring the lengththe circumference of the planet by measuring the lengthone born meridian or 1 360one born meridian or 1 360one born meridian or 1 360distance around the planet along the linedistance around the planet along the linedistance around the planet along the linelength of aboutlength of aboutlength of about320 kilometers and passing from the town320 kilometers and passing from the town320 kilometers and passing from the townI have my hands close to the point outside the cityI have my hands close to the point outside the cityI have my hands close to the point outside the cityUkrainian woman all this is now onUkrainian woman all this is now onUkrainian woman all this is now onthings didn't go well at the equator almost immediatelythings didn't go well at the equator almost immediatelythings didn't go well at the equator almost immediatelyand sometimes in a blatant manner in Quitoand sometimes in a blatant manner in Quitoand sometimes in a blatant manner in Quitoaliens and something caused discontentaliens and something caused discontentaliens and something caused discontentlocal residents were expelled from the citylocal residents were expelled from the citylocal residents were expelled from the cityby a mob armed with stones shortly afterby a mob armed with stones shortly afterby a mob armed with stones shortly afterthis one was killed in a conflict over a womanthis one was killed in a conflict over a womanthis one was killed in a conflict over a womanthe expedition's doctor, a botanist, went crazythe expedition's doctor, a botanist, went crazythe expedition's doctor, a botanist, went crazyothers died of fever or perishedothers died of fever or perishedothers died of fever or perishedfrom falls in the mountains technical assistantfrom falls in the mountains technical assistantfrom falls in the mountains technical assistantJean Gabin is the nephew of one ofJean Gabin is the nephew of one ofJean Gabin is the nephew of one ofLouis Gadin's leaders fledLouis Gadin's leaders fledLouis Gadin's leaders fled13 year old girl and he couldn't13 year old girl and he couldn't13 year old girl and he couldn'tpersuadepersuadepersuadesmart girl at one time the group should havesmart girl at one time the group should havesmart girl at one time the group should haveinterrupt work for 8 months for nowinterrupt work for 8 months for nowinterrupt work for 8 months for nowlocanda min went to lima to settlelocanda min went to lima to settlelocanda min went to lima to settlequestions about the necessary permits andquestions about the necessary permits andquestions about the necessary permits andto top it all off locanda min and buggyto top it all off locanda min and buggyto top it all off locanda min and buggystopped talking to each other andstopped talking to each other andstopped talking to each other andrefused to work together anywhererefused to work together anywhererefused to work together anywhereit all appeared to be shrinking init all appeared to be shrinking init all appeared to be shrinking insize of the expedition partysize of the expedition partysize of the expedition partyofficials met her withofficials met her withofficials met her withwith the deepest suspicion of laborwith the deepest suspicion of laborwith the deepest suspicion of laborI am sure that a group of French scientistsI am sure that a group of French scientistsI am sure that a group of French scientiststraveled halfway around the world to measure the earthtraveled halfway around the world to measure the earthtraveled halfway around the world to measure the earthit seemed like absolute nonsenseit seemed like absolute nonsenseit seemed like absolute nonsenseeven two and a half centuries later it iseven two and a half centuries later it iseven two and a half centuries later it isdoubt still remains appropriatedoubt still remains appropriatedoubt still remains appropriatewhy shouldn't the French produce their ownwhy shouldn't the French produce their ownwhy shouldn't the French produce their ownmeasurements in France and thusmeasurements in France and thusmeasurements in France and thusrelieve yourself of worries and inconveniencesrelieve yourself of worries and inconveniencesrelieve yourself of worries and inconveniencesAndean adventure from this partAndean adventure from this partAndean adventure from this partis that in the 18th century scientistsis that in the 18th century scientistsis that in the 18th century scientistsrarely looked at things simply if underrarely looked at things simply if underrarely looked at things simply if underthe hand turned out to be absurd but temptingthe hand turned out to be absurd but temptingthe hand turned out to be absurd but temptingthe alternative is partly in the real problemthe alternative is partly in the real problemthe alternative is partly in the real problemwhich first stood before the Englishwhich first stood before the Englishwhich first stood before the Englishthe astronomer and the two of us Galileo long agothe astronomer and the two of us Galileo long agothe astronomer and the two of us Galileo long agobefore the bugels kanda min were conceivedbefore the bugels kanda min were conceivedbefore the bugels kanda min were conceivedgo to south america having for thisgo to south america having for thisgo to south america having for thismuch less reasonmuch less reasonmuch less reasonGalileo was an exceptional personalityGalileo was an exceptional personalityGalileo was an exceptional personalityin his long fruitful life pathin his long fruitful life pathin his long fruitful life pathhe happened to be a sea captainhe happened to be a sea captainhe happened to be a sea captaincartographer professor of geometry incartographer professor of geometry incartographer professor of geometry inOxford UniversityOxford UniversityOxford UniversityDeputy Comptroller of the RoyalDeputy Comptroller of the RoyalDeputy Comptroller of the Royalthe mint by the royal astronomer andthe mint by the royal astronomer andthe mint by the royal astronomer andinventor of deep-sea divinginventor of deep-sea divinginventor of deep-sea divingbellsbellsbellsStrictly speaking, Galileo did not invent it.Strictly speaking, Galileo did not invent it.Strictly speaking, Galileo did not invent it.significantly improved divingsignificantly improved divingsignificantly improved divingthe bell that was first usedthe bell that was first usedthe bell that was first useda century and a half earlier he knewa century and a half earlier he knewa century and a half earlier he knewI wrote about magnetism, tides andI wrote about magnetism, tides andI wrote about magnetism, tides andebb and flow movements of the planet with loveebb and flow movements of the planet with loveebb and flow movements of the planet with lovethe effect of opium he came up with weatherthe effect of opium he came up with weatherthe effect of opium he came up with weatherI offered a map and an up-to-date tableI offered a map and an up-to-date tableI offered a map and an up-to-date tablemethods for determining the age of the earth and itsmethods for determining the age of the earth and itsmethods for determining the age of the earth and itsdistance from the sun and even developeddistance from the sun and even developeddistance from the sun and even developeda practical way to preserve fisha practical way to preserve fisha practical way to preserve fishfresh out of seasonfresh out of seasonfresh out of seasonthe only thing he did to me was thisthe only thing he did to me was thisthe only thing he did to me was thishe didn't discover the comet that bears his name, he justhe didn't discover the comet that bears his name, he justhe didn't discover the comet that bears his name, he justdetermined that the comet that was observed indetermined that the comet that was observed indetermined that the comet that was observed in1682 same thing that was seen1682 same thing that was seen1682 same thing that was seenotherotherother1456145614561531 and1531 and1531 andIn 1607 it became Halley's CometIn 1607 it became Halley's CometIn 1607 it became Halley's Cometonly afteronly afteronly after1758, about 16 years after1758, about 16 years after1758, about 16 years afterhis deathhis deathhis deathactuarial tables are used foractuarial tables are used foractuarial tables are used forcalculation of pension accruals andcalculation of pension accruals andcalculation of pension accruals andinsurance premium for life insurance ininsurance premium for life insurance ininsurance premium for life insurance inthey take into account mortality statisticsthey take into account mortality statisticsthey take into account mortality statisticsdifferent ages in a broader sensedifferent ages in a broader sensedifferent ages in a broader senseCurrent calculations are anyCurrent calculations are anyCurrent calculations are anyTariff calculationsTariff calculationsTariff calculationsinsurance case on the basis ofinsurance case on the basis ofinsurance case on the basis ofstatistical datastatistical datastatistical dataHowever, despite all these achievementsHowever, despite all these achievementsHowever, despite all these achievementsthe largest deposits of the Halley treasurythe largest deposits of the Halley treasurythe largest deposits of the Halley treasuryhuman knowledge was perhaps involvedhuman knowledge was perhaps involvedhuman knowledge was perhaps involvedin a small scientific pair with two othersin a small scientific pair with two othersin a small scientific pair with two othersprominent figures of that time robertprominent figures of that time robertprominent figures of that time robertthe sound of which is now more likely to be rememberedthe sound of which is now more likely to be rememberedthe sound of which is now more likely to be rememberedsystems that he was the first to introduce the concept and gavesystems that he was the first to introduce the concept and gavesystems that he was the first to introduce the concept and gavedescription of a living cell anddescription of a living cell anddescription of a living cell andgreat dignified graygreat dignified graygreat dignified grayChristopher Wren who actuallyChristopher Wren who actuallyChristopher Wren who actuallyfirst of all he was an astronomer and thenfirst of all he was an astronomer and thenfirst of all he was an astronomer and thenat least you are usually an architect todayat least you are usually an architect todayat least you are usually an architect todaydoesn't remember anymoredoesn't remember anymoredoesn't remember anymore1683 when Galileo Hooke and R-N together1683 when Galileo Hooke and R-N together1683 when Galileo Hooke and R-N togetherWe were having lunch in London and the conversation turned toWe were having lunch in London and the conversation turned toWe were having lunch in London and the conversation turned tothe movement of celestial bodies was known thatthe movement of celestial bodies was known thatthe movement of celestial bodies was known thatplanets tend to revolve in a special wayplanets tend to revolve in a special wayplanets tend to revolve in a special wayoval shapes which are called or dogsoval shapes which are called or dogsoval shapes which are called or dogsin the words of physicist Richard Feynmanin the words of physicist Richard Feynmanin the words of physicist Richard Feynmanvery specific and precise curve butvery specific and precise curve butvery specific and precise curve butno one knew the reasons for such a movement of the renno one knew the reasons for such a movement of the renno one knew the reasons for such a movement of the rengenerously offered forty shillings approximatelygenerously offered forty shillings approximatelygenerously offered forty shillings approximatelyequals 2 weeks' earningsequals 2 weeks' earningsequals 2 weeks' earningsto the one who first finds an explanation for the soundto the one who first finds an explanation for the soundto the one who first finds an explanation for the soundare widely known for attributing ideas to themselvesare widely known for attributing ideas to themselvesare widely known for attributing ideas to themselvesnot always their own stated thatnot always their own stated thatnot always their own stated thathe already solved this problem but refusedhe already solved this problem but refusedhe already solved this problem but refusedshare the solution on that interesting andshare the solution on that interesting andshare the solution on that interesting andon the clever grounds that he doesn't want to depriveon the clever grounds that he doesn't want to depriveon the clever grounds that he doesn't want to depriveothers enjoy finding the answer themselvesothers enjoy finding the answer themselvesothers enjoy finding the answer themselvesInstead, he temporarily loses the decisionInstead, he temporarily loses the decisionInstead, he temporarily loses the decisionso that others can appreciate it betterso that others can appreciate it betterso that others can appreciate it betterif he had any ideasif he had any ideasif he had any ideasthere is no evidence on this matterthere is no evidence on this matterthere is no evidence on this matterdid not leavedid not leavedid not leaveGle however was so fired up with desireGle however was so fired up with desireGle however was so fired up with desirefind the answer that next year he wentfind the answer that next year he wentfind the answer that next year he wentto Cambridge and plucked up courageto Cambridge and plucked up courageto Cambridge and plucked up couragecontact a math professorcontact a math professorcontact a math professorIsaac Newton in the hope that he couldIsaac Newton in the hope that he couldIsaac Newton in the hope that he couldhelping him newton was undoubtedly strangehelping him newton was undoubtedly strangehelping him newton was undoubtedly strangean outstanding personality beyond all measurean outstanding personality beyond all measurean outstanding personality beyond all measurethinker but closed without joythinker but closed without joythinker but closed without joyirritable to the point of madness legendaryirritable to the point of madness legendaryirritable to the point of madness legendaryabsent-minded they said that in the mornings hangingabsent-minded they said that in the mornings hangingabsent-minded they said that in the mornings hanginghe could sit with his feet off the bed for hourshe could sit with his feet off the bed for hourshe could sit with his feet off the bed for hoursthinking about 7 lice we suddenly his ideasthinking about 7 lice we suddenly his ideasthinking about 7 lice we suddenly his ideasand capable of the most unexpectedand capable of the most unexpectedand capable of the most unexpectedhe created his own anticshe created his own anticshe created his own anticslaboratory first in Cambridge but thenlaboratory first in Cambridge but thenlaboratory first in Cambridge but thenengaged in some very strange experimentsengaged in some very strange experimentsengaged in some very strange experimentsfor example, I once inserted a long awl into myselffor example, I once inserted a long awl into myselffor example, I once inserted a long awl into myselfwhat kind of needle is used for stitching leatherwhat kind of needle is used for stitching leatherwhat kind of needle is used for stitching leatherinto the eye socket and twisted it betweeninto the eye socket and twisted it betweeninto the eye socket and twisted it betweenwith the eye and bone as close towith the eye and bone as close towith the eye and bone as close tothe fundus of the eye just tothe fundus of the eye just tothe fundus of the eye just toit will be some kind of miracle to seeit will be some kind of miracle to seeit will be some kind of miracle to seenothing happened at leastnothing happened at leastnothing happened at leastnothing serious the other time he lookednothing serious the other time he lookednothing serious the other time he lookedI could stand it in the sunI could stand it in the sunI could stand it in the sunfind out how this will affect his vision andfind out how this will affect his vision andfind out how this will affect his vision andOnce again he escaped serious injuryOnce again he escaped serious injuryOnce again he escaped serious injuryalthough I had to spend several days inalthough I had to spend several days inalthough I had to spend several days inin a darkened room until your eyesin a darkened room until your eyesin a darkened room until your eyesthey forgave him for his experiments but over everyonethey forgave him for his experiments but over everyonethey forgave him for his experiments but over everyonethese oddities and quirks ruledthese oddities and quirks ruledthese oddities and quirks ruledthe intellect of a genius even when acting in an ordinary waythe intellect of a genius even when acting in an ordinary waythe intellect of a genius even when acting in an ordinary wayMilan often showed strange behaviorMilan often showed strange behaviorMilan often showed strange behaviorpeculiaritiespeculiaritiespeculiaritiesstudent years are disappointing andstudent years are disappointing andstudent years are disappointing andlimited opportunities of traditionallimited opportunities of traditionallimited opportunities of traditionalhe invented a completely new mathematicshe invented a completely new mathematicshe invented a completely new mathematicsformformformdifferential and integraldifferential and integraldifferential and integralcalculuscalculuscalculusbut he kept silent about it for 27 years like thisbut he kept silent about it for 27 years like thisbut he kept silent about it for 27 years like thisIn the same way he worked in the field of opticsIn the same way he worked in the field of opticsIn the same way he worked in the field of opticschanging our understanding of lightchanging our understanding of lightchanging our understanding of lightlaying the foundations of the spectrum of grapheme and as a sciencelaying the foundations of the spectrum of grapheme and as a sciencelaying the foundations of the spectrum of grapheme and as a scienceand again decided to stand out with the resultsand again decided to stand out with the resultsand again decided to stand out with the resultscookies of their workscookies of their workscookies of their worksthree decades with all his talentsthree decades with all his talentsthree decades with all his talentsreal science was only a partreal science was only a partreal science was only a partat least half of his interestsat least half of his interestsat least half of his interestshe gave up his working timehe gave up his working timehe gave up his working timealchemy and non-orthodox religiousalchemy and non-orthodox religiousalchemy and non-orthodox religiousThese were not just amateurish searchesThese were not just amateurish searchesThese were not just amateurish searchesclasses and serious hobbies whichclasses and serious hobbies whichclasses and serious hobbies whichhe was completely captivated by it, he was secrethe was completely captivated by it, he was secrethe was completely captivated by it, he was secretan adherent of heresy known asan adherent of heresy known asan adherent of heresy known asArianism is a distinctive featureArianism is a distinctive featureArianism is a distinctive featurewhich was the denial of the Holy Trinitywhich was the denial of the Holy Trinitywhich was the denial of the Holy Trinityironies of fate in cambridge newtonironies of fate in cambridge newtonironies of fate in cambridge newtonbelonged to the college of the holy trinitybelonged to the college of the holy trinitybelonged to the college of the holy trinitythe essence of Arianism arose in the beginningthe essence of Arianism arose in the beginningthe essence of Arianism arose in the beginningfourth century is not set out quite accuratelyfourth century is not set out quite accuratelyfourth century is not set out quite accuratelyThe Arians claimed that ChristThe Arians claimed that ChristThe Arians claimed that Christcreated by god the father and is not equal to acreated by god the father and is not equal to acreated by god the father and is not equal to aonly similar to him therefore contrary toonly similar to him therefore contrary toonly similar to him therefore contrary tothe rule was not his dogma at that timethe rule was not his dogma at that timethe rule was not his dogma at that timethe persons of the hypostasis of the Holy Trinity are equalthe persons of the hypostasis of the Holy Trinity are equalthe persons of the hypostasis of the Holy Trinity are equalhe spent endless hourshe spent endless hourshe spent endless hoursstudying the floor plan of the king's templestudying the floor plan of the king's templestudying the floor plan of the king's templeSolomon in Jerusalem is simultaneously masteringSolomon in Jerusalem is simultaneously masteringSolomon in Jerusalem is simultaneously masteringHebrew to understand the original textsHebrew to understand the original textsHebrew to understand the original textsbeing convinced that it containsbeing convinced that it containsbeing convinced that it containsmathematical key to determining datemathematical key to determining datemathematical key to determining datethe second coming of christ and the end of the worldthe second coming of christ and the end of the worldthe second coming of christ and the end of the worldhe treated it with no less zealhe treated it with no less zealhe treated it with no less zealalchemyalchemyalchemyIn 1936, economist John Maynard KeynesIn 1936, economist John Maynard KeynesIn 1936, economist John Maynard Keynesbought suitcases with papers at auctionbought suitcases with papers at auctionbought suitcases with papers at auctionNewton and to his surprise discoveredNewton and to his surprise discoveredNewton and to his surprise discoveredthat the vast majority of themthat the vast majority of themthat the vast majority of themdid not relate to optics or movementdid not relate to optics or movementdid not relate to optics or movementplanets and testified aboutplanets and testified aboutplanets and testified aboutpurposeful search for a waypurposeful search for a waypurposeful search for a waytransformation of common non-ferrous metals intotransformation of common non-ferrous metals intotransformation of common non-ferrous metals intostrands that are precious when chemically analyzedstrands that are precious when chemically analyzedstrands that are precious when chemically analyzedNewton's hair was in 1970Newton's hair was in 1970Newton's hair was in 1970mercury was discovered, an element that representedmercury was discovered, an element that representedmercury was discovered, an element that representedinterests of alchemists hat makersinterests of alchemists hat makersinterests of alchemists hat makersmanufacturers of barometers and perhapsmanufacturers of barometers and perhapsmanufacturers of barometers and perhapsbig for whom and what is the concentrationbig for whom and what is the concentrationbig for whom and what is the concentrationmercury levels were 40 times higher than the natural levelmercury levels were 40 times higher than the natural levelmercury levels were 40 times higher than the natural levelhair level newton therefore nothair level newton therefore nothair level newton therefore notIt's too surprising that in the mornings heIt's too surprising that in the mornings heIt's too surprising that in the mornings heforgot to get out of bedforgot to get out of bedforgot to get out of bedthat I expected to learn from him goals inthat I expected to learn from him goals inthat I expected to learn from him goals intime of its not agreed upon in advancetime of its not agreed upon in advancetime of its not agreed upon in advancevisit in Augustvisit in Augustvisit in August1684 one can only guess but1684 one can only guess but1684 one can only guess butthanks to later memoriesthanks to later memoriesthanks to later memoriesconfidant of newton abraham demuconfidant of newton abraham demuconfidant of newton abraham demuAvra we have a description of this meetingAvra we have a description of this meetingAvra we have a description of this meetingone of the most important for the history of scienceIn 1684, a doctor came to CambridgeIn 1684, a doctor came to CambridgeIn 1684, a doctor came to CambridgeGalileo and after some communicationGalileo and after some communicationGalileo and after some communicationasked sir isaac what he thoughtasked sir isaac what he thoughtasked sir isaac what he thoughtwill represent the curve formedwill represent the curve formedwill represent the curve formedplanets if we assume that the forceplanets if we assume that the forceplanets if we assume that the forcethe attraction to the sun will be backthe attraction to the sun will be backthe attraction to the sun will be backsquare their distance to his it wassquare their distance to his it wassquare their distance to his it wasreference to a mathematical conceptreference to a mathematical conceptreference to a mathematical conceptknown as the inverse square lawknown as the inverse square lawknown as the inverse square lawwho was firmly convinced of the goalwho was firmly convinced of the goalwho was firmly convinced of the goalwas the basis of the explanation but it was not for himwas the basis of the explanation but it was not for himwas the basis of the explanation but it was not for himit's quite clear how to show itit's quite clear how to show itit's quite clear how to show itSir Isaac immediately replied that it would beSir Isaac immediately replied that it would beSir Isaac immediately replied that it would beEllipse Doctor was terribly happy withEllipse Doctor was terribly happy withEllipse Doctor was terribly happy withhe asked in surprise where he got it fromhe asked in surprise where he got it fromhe asked in surprise where he got it fromit is knownit is knownit is knownjustification answered that I figured it outjustification answered that I figured it outjustification answered that I figured it outDoctor Galileo immediately asked to showDoctor Galileo immediately asked to showDoctor Galileo immediately asked to showSir Isaac looked up these calculations in his ownSir Isaac looked up these calculations in his ownSir Isaac looked up these calculations in his ownin the papers but did not findin the papers but did not findin the papers but did not findamazing is the same as saying thatamazing is the same as saying thatamazing is the same as saying thatfound a cure for cancer and then forgotfound a cure for cancer and then forgotfound a cure for cancer and then forgotwhere did you put the uniform at Halley's insistencewhere did you put the uniform at Halley's insistencewhere did you put the uniform at Halley's insistenceNewton agreed to redo the calculationsNewton agreed to redo the calculationsNewton agreed to redo the calculationsand he did publish the articleand he did publish the articleand he did publish the articlepromise and then did much morepromise and then did much morepromise and then did much moresecluded for two intense yearssecluded for two intense yearssecluded for two intense yearshe finally brought his thoughts to lighthe finally brought his thoughts to lighthe finally brought his thoughts to lightyour masterpieceyour masterpieceyour masterpiecemathematical principles of naturalmathematical principles of naturalmathematical principles of naturalphilosophyphilosophyphilosophybetter known as the beginning and this is onbetter known as the beginning and this is onbetter known as the beginning and this is onextremely rare only a few times aextremely rare only a few times aextremely rare only a few times ahistory the human mind has made observationshistory the human mind has made observationshistory the human mind has made observationsso insightful unexpected thenso insightful unexpected thenso insightful unexpected thenIt's hard to decide what's more important hereIt's hard to decide what's more important hereIt's hard to decide what's more important herethe fact itself or the fact that it occurred is astonishingthe fact itself or the fact that it occurred is astonishingthe fact itself or the fact that it occurred is astonishingthe idea of the emergence of beginnings was one ofthe idea of the emergence of beginnings was one ofthe idea of the emergence of beginnings was one ofsuch moments thanks to them newtonsuch moments thanks to them newtonsuch moments thanks to them newtoninstantly became famous until the end of hisinstantly became famous until the end of hisinstantly became famous until the end of hisfor days he bathed in honors, becoming amongfor days he bathed in honors, becoming amongfor days he bathed in honors, becoming amongother first person in Englandother first person in Englandother first person in Englandawarded a knighthood for scientificawarded a knighthood for scientificawarded a knighthood for scientificmerits even the great German mathematicianmerits even the great German mathematicianmerits even the great German mathematicianGottfried von Leibniz with whom NewtonGottfried von Leibniz with whom NewtonGottfried von Leibniz with whom Newtonthere was a long and bitter struggle forthere was a long and bitter struggle forthere was a long and bitter struggle forpriority to create differential andpriority to create differential andpriority to create differential andintegral calculus believed thatintegral calculus believed thatintegral calculus believed thatNewton's contribution to mathematics is equal to everythingNewton's contribution to mathematics is equal to everythingNewton's contribution to mathematics is equal to everythingaccumulated then it is closer to the gods notaccumulated then it is closer to the gods notaccumulated then it is closer to the gods notno mortal can standno mortal can standno mortal can standGalileo wrote expressing feelingsGalileo wrote expressing feelingsGalileo wrote expressing feelingsrepeatedly reflected in the moodrepeatedly reflected in the moodrepeatedly reflected in the moodhis contemporaries and many othershis contemporaries and many othershis contemporaries and many otherspeople consequences although beginningpeople consequences although beginningpeople consequences although beginningcalled one of the most inaccessible forcalled one of the most inaccessible forcalled one of the most inaccessible forunderstanding among those ever writtenunderstanding among those ever writtenunderstanding among those ever writtenbooks newton intends to make it difficultbooks newton intends to make it difficultbooks newton intends to make it difficultso that it is not parasitizedso that it is not parasitizedso that it is not parasitizedmathematically superficial as he themmathematically superficial as he themmathematically superficial as he themcalled she served as a guiding starcalled she served as a guiding starcalled she served as a guiding starfor those who managed to understand it, glue is not onlyfor those who managed to understand it, glue is not onlyfor those who managed to understand it, glue is not onlyorbits were explained mathematicallyorbits were explained mathematicallyorbits were explained mathematicallycelestial bodies we were determinedcelestial bodies we were determinedcelestial bodies we were determinedattractive force first of allattractive force first of allattractive force first of allresponsible for and movement gravityresponsible for and movement gravityresponsible for and movement gravityevery movement in the universe suddenlyevery movement in the universe suddenlyevery movement in the universe suddenlymade sensemade sensemade senseThe principles are based on three laws of mechanicsThe principles are based on three laws of mechanicsThe principles are based on three laws of mechanicsNewton who claim the ultimateNewton who claim the ultimateNewton who claim the ultimateit is clear that the body accelerates in thatit is clear that the body accelerates in thatit is clear that the body accelerates in thatthe direction in which it receives a pushthe direction in which it receives a pushthe direction in which it receives a pushthat it will move evenly andthat it will move evenly andthat it will move evenly andin a straight line until another forcein a straight line until another forcein a straight line until another forcewill not slow down or divert it and thatwill not slow down or divert it and thatwill not slow down or divert it and thatevery action meets its oppositeevery action meets its oppositeevery action meets its oppositedirected and equal in strengthdirected and equal in strengthdirected and equal in strengthcounteraction and its law of universalitycounteraction and its law of universalitycounteraction and its law of universalitygravitygravitygravityhe establishes that every body inhe establishes that every body inhe establishes that every body inthe universe attracts all others to itselfthe universe attracts all others to itselfthe universe attracts all others to itselfit may seem that this is not the case, howeverit may seem that this is not the case, howeverit may seem that this is not the case, howeversitting where you are sitting now yousitting where you are sitting now yousitting where you are sitting now youyou attract everything that surrounds youyou attract everything that surrounds youyou attract everything that surrounds youwalls ceiling lamp favorite cat yourwalls ceiling lamp favorite cat yourwalls ceiling lamp favorite cat yourweak really very weakweak really very weakweak really very weakgravitational field is precisely Newtongravitational field is precisely Newtongravitational field is precisely Newtonrealized that the attraction of two bodiesrealized that the attraction of two bodiesrealized that the attraction of two bodiesin the words of Weidmanin the words of Weidmanin the words of Weidmanproportional to the mass of each of them andproportional to the mass of each of them andproportional to the mass of each of them andchanges inversely proportionallychanges inversely proportionallychanges inversely proportionallythe square of the distance between them by othersthe square of the distance between them by othersthe square of the distance between them by othersin words if you double the distance betweenin words if you double the distance betweenin words if you double the distance betweentwo bodies attraction between themtwo bodies attraction between themtwo bodies attraction between themwill decrease by 4 times this can be expressedwill decrease by 4 times this can be expressedwill decrease by 4 times this can be expressedformula which is of course forformula which is of course forformula which is of course formost of us don't have any ideamost of us don't have any ideamost of us don't have any ideano practical value but weno practical value but weno practical value but weat least we can appreciate its eleganceat least we can appreciate its eleganceat least we can appreciate its eleganceand the brevity of a couple of simple multiplicationsand the brevity of a couple of simple multiplicationsand the brevity of a couple of simple multiplicationssimple division and bing you know yourssimple division and bing you know yourssimple division and bing you know yoursgravitational state wherever you aregravitational state wherever you aregravitational state wherever you arewere locatedwere locatedwere locatedit was the first real oneit was the first real oneit was the first real onethe universal law of nature is comprehended by hey andthe universal law of nature is comprehended by hey andthe universal law of nature is comprehended by hey andformulated by the human mindformulated by the human mindformulated by the human mindthat's why newton uses such forcethat's why newton uses such forcethat's why newton uses such forcewith deep respectwith deep respectwith deep respectthe publication began not without dramathe publication began not without dramathe publication began not without dramato Halley's horror as the work approachedto Halley's horror as the work approachedto Halley's horror as the work approachedBy the end, Newton and Hooke got involved inBy the end, Newton and Hooke got involved inBy the end, Newton and Hooke got involved indispute over priority in relation to lawdispute over priority in relation to lawdispute over priority in relation to lawinverse squares and newton refusedinverse squares and newton refusedinverse squares and newton refusedgive the seal of the key third volume withoutgive the seal of the key third volume withoutgive the seal of the key third volume withoutof which there was little left in the first twoof which there was little left in the first twoof which there was little left in the first twomeaning only through desperatemeaning only through desperatemeaning only through desperateshuttle diplomacy and generouslyshuttle diplomacy and generouslyshuttle diplomacy and generouslywho squandered Galilee at the end of Celestewho squandered Galilee at the end of Celestewho squandered Galilee at the end of Celestefinally managed to get it from the unpredictablefinally managed to get it from the unpredictablefinally managed to get it from the unpredictableprofessors final volume but that's itprofessors final volume but that's itprofessors final volume but that's itHalley's troubles are not over yet royalHalley's troubles are not over yet royalHalley's troubles are not over yet royalsociety is called the leading onesociety is called the leading onesociety is called the leading oneBritish scientific organizationBritish scientific organizationBritish scientific organizationThe one who promised to publish this work has now come outThe one who promised to publish this work has now come outThe one who promised to publish this work has now come outfrom the game citing financial reasonsfrom the game citing financial reasonsfrom the game citing financial reasonsdifficulties a year earlier societydifficulties a year earlier societydifficulties a year earlier societysupported from afar the expensive and withsupported from afar the expensive and withsupported from afar the expensive and witha book on the history of fish that failed miserablya book on the history of fish that failed miserablya book on the history of fish that failed miserablyand thought that the book of mathematicsand thought that the book of mathematicsand thought that the book of mathematicsat the beginning it will also hardly be usedat the beginning it will also hardly be usedat the beginning it will also hardly be usedin demandin demandin demandGalileo whose means were not soGalileo whose means were not soGalileo whose means were not soVeliki paid for the publication of the book fromVeliki paid for the publication of the book fromVeliki paid for the publication of the book fromof his pocket and Newton by his own natureof his pocket and Newton by his own natureof his pocket and Newton by his own naturehe didn't give him any habits and inhe didn't give him any habits and inhe didn't give him any habits and into top it all offto top it all offto top it all offthe track just agreed to occupythe track just agreed to occupythe track just agreed to occupythe position of secretary of the society was reportedthe position of secretary of the society was reportedthe position of secretary of the society was reportedthat society is no longer able tothat society is no longer able tothat society is no longer able topay him the promised salary 50pay him the promised salary 50pay him the promised salary 50pounds sterling a year instead of that to himpounds sterling a year instead of that to himpounds sterling a year instead of that to himpaidpaidpaidexamples of fish historyexamples of fish historyexamples of fish historyNewton's laws explained such a multitudeNewton's laws explained such a multitudeNewton's laws explained such a multitudethings sea tides movementthings sea tides movementthings sea tides movementplanets trajectory of cannonballs beforeplanets trajectory of cannonballs beforeplanets trajectory of cannonballs beforehow will they fall to the ground and whyhow will they fall to the ground and whyhow will they fall to the ground and whythe transformation of our planet at a rate ofthe transformation of our planet at a rate ofthe transformation of our planet at a rate ofhundreds of kilometers per hour do not take ushundreds of kilometers per hour do not take ushundreds of kilometers per hour do not take usejects into outer spaceejects into outer spaceejects into outer spaceit took some time toit took some time toit took some time togradually comprehend their meaningsgradually comprehend their meaningsgradually comprehend their meaningshow fast you spin dependshow fast you spin dependshow fast you spin dependsspeed depends on where you arespeed depends on where you arespeed depends on where you arethe earth's rotation varies from more thanthe earth's rotation varies from more thanthe earth's rotation varies from more than1600 kilometers per hour at the equator1600 kilometers per hour at the equator1600 kilometers per hour at the equatorzero at the poles in london this speedzero at the poles in london this speedzero at the poles in london this speedmakes upmakes upmakes up1038 kilometers an hour but one discovery1038 kilometers an hour but one discovery1038 kilometers an hour but one discoveryit caused controversy almost immediatelyit caused controversy almost immediatelyit caused controversy almost immediatelythe assumption that the earth is not quitethe assumption that the earth is not quitethe assumption that the earth is not quiteround according to Newton's theoryround according to Newton's theoryround according to Newton's theorythe centrifugal force of the earth's rotation mustthe centrifugal force of the earth's rotation mustthe centrifugal force of the earth's rotation mustcause a slight compression to appearcause a slight compression to appearcause a slight compression to appearat the poles and bulges at the equator fromat the poles and bulges at the equator fromat the poles and bulges at the equator fromwhy the planet should become slightlywhy the planet should become slightlywhy the planet should become slightlyflattened it meant that the lengthflattened it meant that the lengthflattened it meant that the lengththere will be no degrees of meridians in Italythere will be no degrees of meridians in Italythere will be no degrees of meridians in Italythe same as in Scotland, namely this onethe same as in Scotland, namely this onethe same as in Scotland, namely this onethe length will decrease as you move awaythe length will decrease as you move awaythe length will decrease as you move awayfrom the poles this idea hardly came to mindfrom the poles this idea hardly came to mindfrom the poles this idea hardly came to mindto the taste of those scientists who measure the sizesto the taste of those scientists who measure the sizesto the taste of those scientists who measure the sizesplanets and were based on the assumptionplanets and were based on the assumptionplanets and were based on the assumptionthat it is a perfect spherethat it is a perfect spherethat it is a perfect sphereand that's what people thought for half a centuryand that's what people thought for half a centuryand that's what people thought for half a centurytried to determine the size of the earthtried to determine the size of the earthtried to determine the size of the earthmainly by verymainly by verymainly by verymeticulous measurements are one of the firstmeticulous measurements are one of the firstmeticulous measurements are one of the firstattempts of this kind have been madeattempts of this kind have been madeattempts of this kind have been madeEnglish mathematician and RichardEnglish mathematician and RichardEnglish mathematician and Richardpeople of youth norwood went topeople of youth norwood went topeople of youth norwood went tobermudas with diving bellbermudas with diving bellbermudas with diving bellmade according to the design of Halleymade according to the design of Halleymade according to the design of Halleyintending to collect pearls from the seaintending to collect pearls from the seaintending to collect pearls from the seamake up state project finishedmake up state project finishedmake up state project finishedfailure because there are no pearls therefailure because there are no pearls therefailure because there are no pearls thereIt turned out that the Norwood bell was not the sameIt turned out that the Norwood bell was not the sameIt turned out that the Norwood bell was not the sameworkworkworkhowever, the people were not of those whohowever, the people were not of those whohowever, the people were not of those whoneglects the experience gained inneglects the experience gained inneglects the experience gained inAt the beginning of the 17th century, Bermuda shorts were famous amongAt the beginning of the 17th century, Bermuda shorts were famous amongAt the beginning of the 17th century, Bermuda shorts were famous amongcaptains because it was difficult for themcaptains because it was difficult for themcaptains because it was difficult for themfind the point that the ocean is bigfind the point that the ocean is bigfind the point that the ocean is bigBermudas are small and navigational instrumentsBermudas are small and navigational instrumentsBermudas are small and navigational instrumentswere absolutely unsuitable forwere absolutely unsuitable forwere absolutely unsuitable forI was able to overcome this disproportionI was able to overcome this disproportionI was able to overcome this disproportioneven the agreement is relatively longeven the agreement is relatively longeven the agreement is relatively longnautical mile on the ocean expansesnautical mile on the ocean expansesnautical mile on the ocean expansesthe slightest error in calculationsthe slightest error in calculationsthe slightest error in calculationsincreased many times so that the shipsincreased many times so that the shipsincreased many times so that the shipsoften missed the mark by a wide marginoften missed the mark by a wide marginoften missed the mark by a wide margintargets the size of bermuda shorts but the mouth of the firsttargets the size of bermuda shorts but the mouth of the firsttargets the size of bermuda shorts but the mouth of the firstwhose love was trigonometrywhose love was trigonometrywhose love was trigonometryso her measurement of angles was solvedso her measurement of angles was solvedso her measurement of angles was solvedto bring a share to the art of navigationto bring a share to the art of navigationto bring a share to the art of navigationmathematical precision and for this purposemathematical precision and for this purposemathematical precision and for this purposetook on the task of determining the length in degreestook on the task of determining the length in degreestook on the task of determining the length in degreesdeparting from the walls of the Tower of Londondeparting from the walls of the Tower of Londondeparting from the walls of the Tower of Londonthe people walked selflessly for two yearsthe people walked selflessly for two yearsthe people walked selflessly for two yearsthree hundred thirty three kilometers norththree hundred thirty three kilometers norththree hundred thirty three kilometers northhouse bright along the way countlesshouse bright along the way countlesshouse bright along the way countlessonce stretching the chain of peace and pedanticallyonce stretching the chain of peace and pedanticallyonce stretching the chain of peace and pedanticallymaking adjustments for the rise and fall of the bendmaking adjustments for the rise and fall of the bendmaking adjustments for the rise and fall of the bendroads the last step was measurementroads the last step was measurementroads the last step was measurementsun height in york at same time of daysun height in york at same time of daysun height in york at same time of dayand on the same day of the year when he didand on the same day of the year when he didand on the same day of the year when he didfirst measurement in london based onfirst measurement in london based onfirst measurement in london based onthis is what he reasoned about, one can determinethis is what he reasoned about, one can determinethis is what he reasoned about, one can determinethe length of one degree of the earth's meridian andthe length of one degree of the earth's meridian andthe length of one degree of the earth's meridian andthus calculate the length of the entirethus calculate the length of the entirethus calculate the length of the entirecirclescirclescirclesit was almost absurd in itsit was almost absurd in itsit was almost absurd in itsambitions venture mistake in the slightestambitions venture mistake in the slightestambitions venture mistake in the slightesta fraction of a degree would distort the resulta fraction of a degree would distort the resulta fraction of a degree would distort the resultmany miles, but in reality it turned out like thismany miles, but in reality it turned out like thismany miles, but in reality it turned out like thisthe people proudly proclaimed that hethe people proudly proclaimed that hethe people proudly proclaimed that hemeasured the degree with an accuracy of a pinch ifmeasured the degree with an accuracy of a pinch ifmeasured the degree with an accuracy of a pinch ifmore precisely, approximately up to 500 metersmore precisely, approximately up to 500 metersmore precisely, approximately up to 500 metersthe final value was worth 10the final value was worth 10the final value was worth 10as much as seventy-two hundredths of a kilometeras much as seventy-two hundredths of a kilometeras much as seventy-two hundredths of a kilometerdegree meridian indegree meridian indegree meridian inIn 1637, the masterpiece of the people was publishedIn 1637, the masterpiece of the people was publishedIn 1637, the masterpiece of the people was publishedareas of navigation practicalareas of navigation practicalareas of navigation practicalseafarer's guide book immediatelyseafarer's guide book immediatelyseafarer's guide book immediatelyHaving become popular, she survived 17Having become popular, she survived 17Having become popular, she survived 17buildings and was sold even after 25 yearsbuildings and was sold even after 25 yearsbuildings and was sold even after 25 yearsafter the death of the author, the people as a familyafter the death of the author, the people as a familyafter the death of the author, the people as a familyreturned to Bermuda where he becamereturned to Bermuda where he becamereturned to Bermuda where he becamea successful planter and a freea successful planter and a freea successful planter and a freean hour and gave to his first lovean hour and gave to his first lovean hour and gave to his first lovetrigonometry he lived there for 38 years andtrigonometry he lived there for 38 years andtrigonometry he lived there for 38 years andIt would be nice to inform you that his daysIt would be nice to inform you that his daysIt would be nice to inform you that his daysflowed into happiness and prosperity onflowed into happiness and prosperity onflowed into happiness and prosperity onin fact, life didn't work out that way on the way fromin fact, life didn't work out that way on the way fromin fact, life didn't work out that way on the way fromhis two young sons were placed in Englandhis two young sons were placed in Englandhis two young sons were placed in Englandin the same cabin with the reverend Nathaniel himin the same cabin with the reverend Nathaniel himin the same cabin with the reverend Nathaniel himwhite and they somehow got therewhite and they somehow got therewhite and they somehow got theretraumatized the young priest that hetraumatized the young priest that hetraumatized the young priest that heuntil the end of his careeruntil the end of his careeruntil the end of his careerI practically did only thatI practically did only thatI practically did only thatannoyed the water with any smallannoyed the water with any smallannoyed the water with any smallthe most dirty tricks he was capable ofthe most dirty tricks he was capable ofthe most dirty tricks he was capable ofunnecessary griefunnecessary griefunnecessary griefcaused the Nor water and two daughters with theircaused the Nor water and two daughters with theircaused the Nor water and two daughters with theirunsuccessful marriage one of the leavesunsuccessful marriage one of the leavesunsuccessful marriage one of the leavesperhaps at the instigation of that very sameperhaps at the instigation of that very sameperhaps at the instigation of that very samethe priest was constantly being served with small thingsthe priest was constantly being served with small thingsthe priest was constantly being served with small thingscalling for a great deal of judgment on the peoplescalling for a great deal of judgment on the peoplescalling for a great deal of judgment on the peoplesirritation and forcing to commitirritation and forcing to commitirritation and forcing to commitendless trips to hormones forendless trips to hormones forendless trips to hormones fordefense in court finallydefense in court finallydefense in court finallyIn the 1650s, vermouth was brought to courtIn the 1650s, vermouth was brought to courtIn the 1650s, vermouth was brought to courtover witches and the last years of lifeover witches and the last years of lifeover witches and the last years of lifeNorwood spent his time in terrible anxiety that hisNorwood spent his time in terrible anxiety that hisNorwood spent his time in terrible anxiety that hisworks on trigonometryworks on trigonometryworks on trigonometrywith their mysterious symbols will be consideredwith their mysterious symbols will be consideredwith their mysterious symbols will be consideredconnection with the devil and his subjectionconnection with the devil and his subjectionconnection with the devil and his subjectionit seems that she is extremely well known for her terrible executionit seems that she is extremely well known for her terrible executionit seems that she is extremely well known for her terrible executionit's unlikely he really deserved itit's unlikely he really deserved itit's unlikely he really deserved itnetworks misfortune in old age but with allnetworks misfortune in old age but with allnetworks misfortune in old age but with allone can only say with certaintyone can only say with certaintyone can only say with certaintythat he experienced their interest in the meantimethat he experienced their interest in the meantimethat he experienced their interest in the meantimedetermining the circumference of the earthdetermining the circumference of the earthdetermining the circumference of the earthmoved to France there is an astronomer Jeanmoved to France there is an astronomer Jeanmoved to France there is an astronomer JeanPiccard developed a remarkably complexPiccard developed a remarkably complexPiccard developed a remarkably complextriangulation method of surveying usingtriangulation method of surveying usingtriangulation method of surveying usingquadrants of pendulums of zenith clocksquadrants of pendulums of zenith clocksquadrants of pendulums of zenith clockssectors and telescopes for observationsectors and telescopes for observationsectors and telescopes for observationthe motion of Jupiter's satellitesthe motion of Jupiter's satellitesthe motion of Jupiter's satellitesanti-aircraft sector is portableanti-aircraft sector is portableanti-aircraft sector is portableastronomical instrument for precisionastronomical instrument for precisionastronomical instrument for precisionmeasurements of the position of luminaries near the zenithIn 1669, after two years of traveling aroundIn 1669, after two years of traveling aroundIn 1669, after two years of traveling aroundall over France and triangulation of surveysall over France and triangulation of surveysall over France and triangulation of surveysby his method he declared a refinedby his method he declared a refinedby his method he declared a refinedthe size of one degree of the meridian is 10the size of one degree of the meridian is 10the size of one degree of the meridian is 10forty six hundredths of a kilometerforty six hundredths of a kilometerforty six hundredths of a kilometerThis became a source of great prideThis became a source of great prideThis became a source of great pridefor the French but the result was basedfor the French but the result was basedfor the French but the result was basedon the assumption that the earth representson the assumption that the earth representson the assumption that the earth representsa perfect sphere and Newton nowa perfect sphere and Newton nowa perfect sphere and Newton nowclaimed that this is not the case yetclaimed that this is not the case yetclaimed that this is not the case yetbecame more complicated when after deathbecame more complicated when after deathbecame more complicated when after deathpicara giovanni jacques cassé and father sonpicara giovanni jacques cassé and father sonpicara giovanni jacques cassé and father sonrepeated his experiments on a larger scalerepeated his experiments on a larger scalerepeated his experiments on a larger scalethe area came to the conclusion that the landthe area came to the conclusion that the landthe area came to the conclusion that the landit becomes thicker towards the poles theyit becomes thicker towards the poles theyit becomes thicker towards the poles theyequator in other words that newtonequator in other words that newtonequator in other words that newtonI was wrong exactly the oppositeI was wrong exactly the oppositeI was wrong exactly the oppositeThis circumstance prompted the academyThis circumstance prompted the academyThis circumstance prompted the academyscience send bouques locanda wines to the southscience send bouques locanda wines to the southscience send bouques locanda wines to the southAmerica for new dimensions and choseAmerica for new dimensions and choseAmerica for new dimensions and choseandy because it was necessary to conductandy because it was necessary to conductandy because it was necessary to conductmeasurements near the equator in order to determinemeasurements near the equator in order to determinemeasurements near the equator in order to determineis there really a difference hereis there really a difference hereis there really a difference herethe curvature of the earth's surface and becausethe curvature of the earth's surface and becausethe curvature of the earth's surface and becausethey thought that there would be visibility in the mountainsthey thought that there would be visibility in the mountainsthey thought that there would be visibility in the mountainsIt turned out to be better in reality that the mountains are inIt turned out to be better in reality that the mountains are inIt turned out to be better in reality that the mountains are inPeru is constantly shrouded in clouds andPeru is constantly shrouded in clouds andPeru is constantly shrouded in clouds andthe group had to wait for weeks for methe group had to wait for weeks for methe group had to wait for weeks for meagain often to carry out work and inagain often to carry out work and inagain often to carry out work and into finish it all they chose almost the mostto finish it all they chose almost the mostto finish it all they chose almost the mostdifficult terrain on earthdifficult terrain on earthdifficult terrain on earthPeruvians call their landscape myPeruvians call their landscape myPeruvians call their landscape myoxidant to a very torn and it is outsideoxidant to a very torn and it is outsideoxidant to a very torn and it is outsideno doubtno doubtno doubtThis is exactly what the French had to doThis is exactly what the French had to doThis is exactly what the French had to doclimb some of the most difficult inclimb some of the most difficult inclimb some of the most difficult inworld mountains mountains which could notworld mountains mountains which could notworld mountains mountains which could notovercome even their mules but to get thereovercome even their mules but to get thereovercome even their mules but to get therebefore they had to crossbefore they had to crossbefore they had to crossturbulent rivers cut through the jungleturbulent rivers cut through the jungleturbulent rivers cut through the junglecross the many miles longcross the many miles longcross the many miles longhigh-mountain rocky desert and almosthigh-mountain rocky desert and almosthigh-mountain rocky desert and almostall this was not mapped andall this was not mapped andall this was not mapped andwas away from anywas away from anywas away from anysources of supply for flour and locandasources of supply for flour and locandasources of supply for flour and locandathe world was not short of persistencethe world was not short of persistencethe world was not short of persistencepersistently carried out the task assigned to thempersistently carried out the task assigned to thempersistently carried out the task assigned to themtask for nine and a halftask for nine and a halftask for nine and a halflong, harsh, sun-scorched yearslong, harsh, sun-scorched yearslong, harsh, sun-scorched yearsshortly before the completion of the project before themshortly before the completion of the project before themshortly before the completion of the project before themnews came that another Frenchnews came that another Frenchnews came that another Frencha group of people taking measurements in the northa group of people taking measurements in the northa group of people taking measurements in the northScandinavia and also faced withScandinavia and also faced withScandinavia and also faced withserious obstacles from the marshesserious obstacles from the marshesserious obstacles from the marshesbogs for dangerous ice ridgesbogs for dangerous ice ridgesbogs for dangerous ice ridgesI found that closer to the poles the degreeI found that closer to the poles the degreeI found that closer to the poles the degreereally longer as predictedreally longer as predictedreally longer as predictedNewton the earth was 43 kilometersNewton the earth was 43 kilometersNewton the earth was 43 kilometersthicker if you measure it at the equator thanthicker if you measure it at the equator thanthicker if you measure it at the equator thanwhen measured from top to bottom from pole towhen measured from top to bottom from pole towhen measured from top to bottom from pole topolepolepoleso boogie and locanda minso boogie and locanda minso boogie and locanda minspent almost ten years to obtainspent almost ten years to obtainspent almost ten years to obtaina result that I didn't really like anda result that I didn't really like anda result that I didn't really like andeverything in order to get to know iteverything in order to get to know iteverything in order to get to know itthat they weren't even the firstthat they weren't even the firstthat they weren't even the firstwithout any interest they did not finish filmingwithout any interest they did not finish filmingwithout any interest they did not finish filmingconfirmed the correctness of the results inconfirmed the correctness of the results inconfirmed the correctness of the results inanother French group thenanother French group thenanother French group thenstill not talking to each otherstill not talking to each otherstill not talking to each otherthe other returned to the coast andthe other returned to the coast andthe other returned to the coast andsailed home on different shipssailed home on different shipssailed home on different shipsWe apply varnish before heading outWe apply varnish before heading outWe apply varnish before heading outhomeland first among European scientistshomeland first among European scientistshomeland first among European scientistsundertook an extremely dangerous journeyundertook an extremely dangerous journeyundertook an extremely dangerous journeydown the amazondown the amazondown the amazonNewton's principles contained another thingNewton's principles contained another thingNewton's principles contained another thingthe assumption that the plumb linethe assumption that the plumb linethe assumption that the plumb linewill deviate slightly near the mountainwill deviate slightly near the mountainwill deviate slightly near the mountainit is under the influence of and gravitationalit is under the influence of and gravitationalit is under the influence of and gravitationalmass along with the earth's it was more thanmass along with the earth's it was more thanmass along with the earth's it was more thaninteresting fact if you measure the angle accuratelyinteresting fact if you measure the angle accuratelyinteresting fact if you measure the angle accuratelydeviations and determine the mass of the mountain can bedeviations and determine the mass of the mountain can bedeviations and determine the mass of the mountain can becalculate the constantcalculate the constantcalculate the constantuniversal gravitation that isuniversal gravitation that isuniversal gravitation that isfundamental to the force of gravityfundamental to the force of gravityfundamental to the force of gravityquantity denoted by the letter g gquantity denoted by the letter g gquantity denoted by the letter g gLatin alphabet and at the same timeLatin alphabet and at the same timeLatin alphabet and at the same timedetermine the mass of the earth bukey locanda mindetermine the mass of the earth bukey locanda mindetermine the mass of the earth bukey locanda mintried to do it in Peruviantried to do it in Peruviantried to do it in Peruvianvolcano chimborazo but failedvolcano chimborazo but failedvolcano chimborazo but faileddue to technical difficulties anddue to technical difficulties anddue to technical difficulties andown discord so the idea wasown discord so the idea wasown discord so the idea wasleft alone for 30 years until sheleft alone for 30 years until sheleft alone for 30 years until sheresurrected in England by the Royal Astronomerresurrected in England by the Royal Astronomerresurrected in England by the Royal Astronomerbrought Moscowbrought Moscowbrought Moscowpopular book let's sable longitudepopular book let's sable longitudepopular book let's sable longitudemasks line is exposed as a fool and a scoundrelmasks line is exposed as a fool and a scoundrelmasks line is exposed as a fool and a scoundrelfor not appreciating the talent of watchmakersfor not appreciating the talent of watchmakersfor not appreciating the talent of watchmakersmasters john harrison and maybe somasters john harrison and maybe somasters john harrison and maybe soit was but we are grateful to him forit was but we are grateful to him forit was but we are grateful to him forother cases not mentioned in her book andother cases not mentioned in her book andother cases not mentioned in her book andamong them, not the least important place is occupied byamong them, not the least important place is occupied byamong them, not the least important place is occupied bysuccessful weighing methodsuccessful weighing methodsuccessful weighing methodland mask line understood that the key toland mask line understood that the key toland mask line understood that the key tothe solution is to find a mountainthe solution is to find a mountainthe solution is to find a mountainthe correct shape is enough tothe correct shape is enough tothe correct shape is enough toestimate its mass at his insistenceestimate its mass at his insistenceestimate its mass at his insistenceThe Royal Society agreedThe Royal Society agreedThe Royal Society agreedentrust to a trustworthy personentrust to a trustworthy personentrust to a trustworthy persontravel around the British Isles andtravel around the British Isles andtravel around the British Isles andtry to find such a mountain near the masktry to find such a mountain near the masktry to find such a mountain near the maskLaina just had a suitable one in mindLaina just had a suitable one in mindLaina just had a suitable one in mindman astronomer and surveyor charlesman astronomer and surveyor charlesman astronomer and surveyor charlesmason masks lines mason became friendsmason masks lines mason became friendsmason masks lines mason became friends11 years before that, he was engaged in observations11 years before that, he was engaged in observations11 years before that, he was engaged in observationsa very important astronomical phenomenona very important astronomical phenomenona very important astronomical phenomenontransit of the planet venus across the solartransit of the planet venus across the solartransit of the planet venus across the solardiskdiskdiskthe tireless revolt of the Galei for many years beforethe tireless revolt of the Galei for many years beforethe tireless revolt of the Galei for many years beforethis this event expressed the idea thatthis this event expressed the idea thatthis this event expressed the idea thatif measurements are taken duringif measurements are taken duringif measurements are taken duringone of these passages from the electoral toone of these passages from the electoral toone of these passages from the electoral tothe earth points then according to the rules of triangulationthe earth points then according to the rules of triangulationthe earth points then according to the rules of triangulationyou can calculate the distance from the ground toyou can calculate the distance from the ground toyou can calculate the distance from the ground tosun and thus perform calibrationsun and thus perform calibrationsun and thus perform calibrationdistance to all other bodiesdistance to all other bodiesdistance to all other bodiessolar systemsolar systemsolar systemunfortunately the transit of venus across the diskunfortunately the transit of venus across the diskunfortunately the transit of venus across the diskthe sun occurs very irregularly theythe sun occurs very irregularly theythe sun occurs very irregularly theyfollow in pairs at intervals of 8 yearsfollow in pairs at intervals of 8 yearsfollow in pairs at intervals of 8 yearsthen they don't appear for a whole centurythen they don't appear for a whole centurythen they don't appear for a whole centuryNothing more happened during Halley's lifetimeNothing more happened during Halley's lifetimeNothing more happened during Halley's lifetimenonenonenonehowever, the idea was still simmering whenhowever, the idea was still simmering whenhowever, the idea was still simmering whenIn 1761, almost two decades laterIn 1761, almost two decades laterIn 1761, almost two decades laterAfter Galileo's death the time cameAfter Galileo's death the time cameAfter Galileo's death the time camethe next passage of the scientific world wasthe next passage of the scientific world wasthe next passage of the scientific world wasI'm more ready for it than for anything elseI'm more ready for it than for anything elseI'm more ready for it than for anything elseprevious astronomical eventprevious astronomical eventprevious astronomical eventinherent in the age of latent readiness forinherent in the age of latent readiness forinherent in the age of latent readiness forScientists recovered from severe trialsScientists recovered from severe trialsScientists recovered from severe trialsmore than a hundred places around the planetmore than a hundred places around the planetmore than a hundred places around the planetSiberia is South Africa Indonesia in the forestsSiberia is South Africa Indonesia in the forestsSiberia is South Africa Indonesia in the forestswisconsin and many other areaswisconsin and many other areaswisconsin and many other areasFrance sent 32 observersFrance sent 32 observersFrance sent 32 observersBritain 18 were observers from SwedenBritain 18 were observers from SwedenBritain 18 were observers from SwedenRussia is it Germany Ireland and fromRussia is it Germany Ireland and fromRussia is it Germany Ireland and fromother countriesother countriesother countriesit was the first joint effort in historyit was the first joint effort in historyit was the first joint effort in historyinternational scientific enterprise andinternational scientific enterprise andinternational scientific enterprise andShe encountered difficulties almost everywhereShe encountered difficulties almost everywhereShe encountered difficulties almost everywheremany observers were stopped by warsmany observers were stopped by warsmany observers were stopped by warsillness or shipwrecks and othersillness or shipwrecks and othersillness or shipwrecks and othersreached their destinationsreached their destinationsreached their destinationsbut when they opened the boxes they discovered thatbut when they opened the boxes they discovered thatbut when they opened the boxes they discovered thatthe equipment is either broken orthe equipment is either broken orthe equipment is either broken orthe tropical heat set was jarring and againthe tropical heat set was jarring and againthe tropical heat set was jarring and againby the will of fate, they found themselves among the Frenchby the will of fate, they found themselves among the Frenchby the will of fate, they found themselves among the Frenchthe most unlucky participants of jean shopthe most unlucky participants of jean shopthe most unlucky participants of jean shopmany months by carriages by boats by sleighsmany months by carriages by boats by sleighsmany months by carriages by boats by sleighsmade his way to Siberia, carefully pressing it tomade his way to Siberia, carefully pressing it tomade his way to Siberia, carefully pressing it tobreasts with each dangerous pushbreasts with each dangerous pushbreasts with each dangerous pushfragile instruments to the end of the pathfragile instruments to the end of the pathfragile instruments to the end of the pathfind out the latest extremely importantfind out the latest extremely importantfind out the latest extremely importantthe section was blocked by a river that had overflowedthe section was blocked by a river that had overflowedthe section was blocked by a river that had overflowedas a result of unusually strong springas a result of unusually strong springas a result of unusually strong springrains for which local inhabitants are to blamerains for which local inhabitants are to blamerains for which local inhabitants are to blamethey laid the blame on the astronomer himselfthey laid the blame on the astronomer himselfthey laid the blame on the astronomer himselfsaw him aiming at the skysaw him aiming at the skysaw him aiming at the skystrange devices hat managed to escapestrange devices hat managed to escapestrange devices hat managed to escapebut he didn't make any useful measurementsbut he didn't make any useful measurementsbut he didn't make any useful measurementscould not completecould not completecould not completeeven more unlucky is Guillaume deprived of Tillyueven more unlucky is Guillaume deprived of Tillyueven more unlucky is Guillaume deprived of Tillyuthe misadventure of which is remarkablethe misadventure of which is remarkablethe misadventure of which is remarkabledescribed by the topic and service in the bookdescribed by the topic and service in the bookdescribed by the topic and service in the bookcoming of age on the milky way for womencoming of age on the milky way for womencoming of age on the milky way for womennickel shipped from france over the yearsnickel shipped from france over the yearsnickel shipped from france over the yearsevents to watch the passageevents to watch the passageevents to watch the passageVenus by the disk of the sun and swing and butVenus by the disk of the sun and swing and butVenus by the disk of the sun and swing and butdue to all sorts of delays during the daydue to all sorts of delays during the daydue to all sorts of delays during the daypassingpassingpassinghe was still at sea there was no room anymorehe was still at sea there was no room anymorehe was still at sea there was no room anymoreyou will come up with something because when rocking reliableyou will come up with something because when rocking reliableyou will come up with something because when rocking reliablemeasurements can't be made, it's not brokenmeasurements can't be made, it's not brokenmeasurements can't be made, it's not brokenfailures or not dash followed infailures or not dash followed infailures or not dash followed inIndia and stayed there to wait for the 2nd passageIndia and stayed there to wait for the 2nd passageIndia and stayed there to wait for the 2nd passageVVVIn 1769, having eight years in reserve, heIn 1769, having eight years in reserve, heIn 1769, having eight years in reserve, hebuilt a first-class observationbuilt a first-class observationbuilt a first-class observationthe point has checked all the devices more than once andthe point has checked all the devices more than once andthe point has checked all the devices more than once andstates in perfect readiness morning 4states in perfect readiness morning 4states in perfect readiness morning 4JuneJuneJune1769 on day 2 of the passage it was clear1769 on day 2 of the passage it was clear1769 on day 2 of the passage it was clearbut as soon as the phenomenon began on the sunbut as soon as the phenomenon began on the sunbut as soon as the phenomenon began on the sunclouds came running and stayed there for almostclouds came running and stayed there for almostclouds came running and stayed there for almostexactly as long as it lastedexactly as long as it lastedexactly as long as it lastedpassage three hours 14 minutes 7 secondspassage three hours 14 minutes 7 secondspassage three hours 14 minutes 7 secondsfor women toric packed devicesfor women toric packed devicesfor women toric packed deviceswent to the nearest port but on the waywent to the nearest port but on the waywent to the nearest port but on the waycaught dysentery and was almost illcaught dysentery and was almost illcaught dysentery and was almost illa year still weakened by illnessa year still weakened by illnessa year still weakened by illnesshe boarded a ship that almost diedhe boarded a ship that almost diedhe boarded a ship that almost diedin a tropical cyclone off the coast of Africain a tropical cyclone off the coast of Africain a tropical cyclone off the coast of Africawhen he finally got home throughwhen he finally got home throughwhen he finally got home througheleven and a half years after the starteleven and a half years after the starteleven and a half years after the starttravel and not receive anytravel and not receive anytravel and not receive anyresults then found then in timeresults then found then in timeresults then found then in timeabsenceabsenceabsencehis relatives managed to declare him deadhis relatives managed to declare him deadhis relatives managed to declare him deadand happily took away the advantageand happily took away the advantageand happily took away the advantagecompared to this, the troubles experiencedcompared to this, the troubles experiencedcompared to this, the troubles experienced18 English languages scattered around the world18 English languages scattered around the world18 English languages scattered around the worldthe observers were small masonsthe observers were small masonsthe observers were small masonsfound himself paired with a young surveyorfound himself paired with a young surveyorfound himself paired with a young surveyorjeremy dixon them and they apparentlyjeremy dixon them and they apparentlyjeremy dixon them and they apparentlyworked well together becauseworked well together becauseworked well together becauseIn the future, they collaborated successfully for a long timeIn the future, they collaborated successfully for a long timeIn the future, they collaborated successfully for a long timethey were ordered to go to sumatra andthey were ordered to go to sumatra andthey were ordered to go to sumatra andfrom there to record the passage howeverfrom there to record the passage howeverfrom there to record the passage howeveralready on the second day after sailing on theiralready on the second day after sailing on theiralready on the second day after sailing on theirthe ship was attacked by a French frigate ifthe ship was attacked by a French frigate ifthe ship was attacked by a French frigate ifscientists were inclined towards internationalscientists were inclined towards internationalscientists were inclined towards internationalcooperationcooperationcooperationthere were no similar states observedthere were no similar states observedthere were no similar states observedMrs Dixon was sent to the royalMrs Dixon was sent to the royalMrs Dixon was sent to the royalsociety message is extremely dangerous mysociety message is extremely dangerous mysociety message is extremely dangerous myview position in the open sea andview position in the open sea andview position in the open sea andthey asked if it was worth canceling all of thisthey asked if it was worth canceling all of thisthey asked if it was worth canceling all of thiseventeventeventin response they received without delayin response they received without delayin response they received without delaya cold rebuke with a reminder thata cold rebuke with a reminder thata cold rebuke with a reminder thatthat they have already been paid that the country and scientificthat they have already been paid that the country and scientificthat they have already been paid that the country and scientificthe community is counting on their refusalthe community is counting on their refusalthe community is counting on their refusalcontinuing the expedition is irreparablecontinuing the expedition is irreparablecontinuing the expedition is irreparablewill ruin their reputation by swallowing thiswill ruin their reputation by swallowing thiswill ruin their reputation by swallowing thisbitter pill they continued sailingbitter pill they continued sailingbitter pill they continued sailingbut on the way they were overtaken by a message thatbut on the way they were overtaken by a message thatbut on the way they were overtaken by a message thatSumatra passed into the hands of the French andSumatra passed into the hands of the French andSumatra passed into the hands of the French andI had to watch the passage fromI had to watch the passage fromI had to watch the passage fromhalfway to the Cape of Good Hopehalfway to the Cape of Good Hopehalfway to the Cape of Good HopeOn the way back they stopped atOn the way back they stopped atOn the way back they stopped aton a colorful island lost in the Atlanticon a colorful island lost in the Atlanticon a colorful island lost in the Atlanticelena where did you meet masks line and whatelena where did you meet masks line and whatelena where did you meet masks line and whatobservations were second due to cloudinessobservations were second due to cloudinessobservations were second due to cloudinessMason and Masks Line became close friends andMason and Masks Line became close friends andMason and Masks Line became close friends andvery nice opportunity somevery nice opportunity somevery nice opportunity somespent several weeks usefullyspent several weeks usefullyspent several weeks usefullydelivering tide chartdelivering tide chartdelivering tide chartsoon mask line returned to england wheresoon mask line returned to england wheresoon mask line returned to england wherebecame the royal astronomer and Mason withbecame the royal astronomer and Mason withbecame the royal astronomer and Mason withDixon is now clearly more seasonedDixon is now clearly more seasonedDixon is now clearly more seasonedset off on four long and fullset off on four long and fullset off on four long and fulldangers of the year to conductdangers of the year to conductdangers of the year to conducttopographic surveytopographic surveytopographic survey390 kilometers of wild American390 kilometers of wild American390 kilometers of wild Americanterritories in order to settle a border disputeterritories in order to settle a border disputeterritories in order to settle a border disputebetween william valuable andbetween william valuable andbetween william valuable andLord Baltimore am about their coloniesLord Baltimore am about their coloniesLord Baltimore am about their coloniesPennsylvania and Maryland as a resultPennsylvania and Maryland as a resultPennsylvania and Maryland as a resultthe famous mason line appearedthe famous mason line appearedthe famous mason line appearedDixon later obtained valicheskoeDixon later obtained valicheskoeDixon later obtained valicheskoemeaning as a dividing line betweenmeaning as a dividing line betweenmeaning as a dividing line betweenslave and free statesslave and free statesslave and free statesalthough the laying of lines was the main thingalthough the laying of lines was the main thingalthough the laying of lines was the main thingthe task was not completed in the same waythe task was not completed in the same waythe task was not completed in the same wayastronomical observations in particularastronomical observations in particularastronomical observations in particularone of the most accurate of that centuryone of the most accurate of that centuryone of the most accurate of that centurymeasurements of the degree of the meridian of achievementmeasurements of the degree of the meridian of achievementmeasurements of the degree of the meridian of achievementwhich was met in England scudowhich was met in England scudowhich was met in England scudowith more enthusiasm thanwith more enthusiasm thanwith more enthusiasm thansettlement of the border dispute betweensettlement of the border dispute betweensettlement of the border dispute betweencapricious aristocrats returning tocapricious aristocrats returning tocapricious aristocrats returning toEurope Mask Line and his colleagues inEurope Mask Line and his colleagues inEurope Mask Line and his colleagues inGermany in France were forcedGermany in France were forcedGermany in France were forcedadmit that observing the passageadmit that observing the passageadmit that observing the passageVenusVenusVenusIn 1761, one of the projects essentially failedIn 1761, one of the projects essentially failedIn 1761, one of the projects essentially faileddifficulties, paradoxically enoughdifficulties, paradoxically enoughdifficulties, paradoxically enoughwas that there was too muchwas that there was too muchwas that there was too muchobservations the results of which are collectedobservations the results of which are collectedobservations the results of which are collectedtogether they often entered into insoluble conflictstogether they often entered into insoluble conflictstogether they often entered into insoluble conflictscontradictionscontradictionscontradictionssuccessfully recorded the transit of Venussuccessfully recorded the transit of Venussuccessfully recorded the transit of Venusaccording to the disk of the sun it fell to James's lotaccording to the disk of the sun it fell to James's lotaccording to the disk of the sun it fell to James's lotcook of a little-known captain originally fromcook of a little-known captain originally fromcook of a little-known captain originally fromYorkshireman who watched the passageYorkshireman who watched the passageYorkshireman who watched the passage1769 sunlit mountain peaks1769 sunlit mountain peaks1769 sunlit mountain peaksthen he had to hide forthen he had to hide forthen he had to hide formap australia and claim itmap australia and claim itmap australia and claim ither right to the British Crown after hisher right to the British Crown after hisher right to the British Crown after hisreturnsreturnsreturnsthe French astronomer Joseph Lavenderthe French astronomer Joseph Lavenderthe French astronomer Joseph Lavenderenough data has emerged toenough data has emerged toenough data has emerged tocalculate the average distance from the ground tocalculate the average distance from the ground tocalculate the average distance from the ground toa little more suna little more suna little more sun150 million kilometers next two150 million kilometers next two150 million kilometers next twopassages in the 19th century allowedpassages in the 19th century allowedpassages in the 19th century allowedastronomers stop at the value of one hundredastronomers stop at the value of one hundredastronomers stop at the value of one hundredforty nine point 59 millionforty nine point 59 millionforty nine point 59 millionkilometers now we know the exactkilometers now we know the exactkilometers now we know the exactdistancedistancedistance149,597870691 million kilometers149,597870691 million kilometers149,597870691 million kilometersthe earth has finally found its place in spacethe earth has finally found its place in spacethe earth has finally found its place in spaceThis is an internationally acceptedThis is an internationally acceptedThis is an internationally acceptedastronomical union meaningastronomical union meaningastronomical union meaningastronomical unit you dayastronomical unit you dayastronomical unit you daythe distance from the earth to the sun itthe distance from the earth to the sun itthe distance from the earth to the sun itknown with an error of plus or minus 30known with an error of plus or minus 30known with an error of plus or minus 30meters during the year distance to the sunmeters during the year distance to the sunmeters during the year distance to the sunchanges by plus or minus twochanges by plus or minus twochanges by plus or minus twopercent due to the fact that the earth's orbit is notpercent due to the fact that the earth's orbit is notpercent due to the fact that the earth's orbit is notperfectly circularperfectly circularperfectly circularas for mason and dixon theyas for mason and dixon theyas for mason and dixon theyreturned to England as heroes of science butreturned to England as heroes of science butreturned to England as heroes of science butstopped for unknown reasonsstopped for unknown reasonsstopped for unknown reasonscooperation despite their activecooperation despite their activecooperation despite their activeparticipation in many important scientificparticipation in many important scientificparticipation in many important scientificVery little is known about the events of the 18th centuryVery little is known about the events of the 18th centuryVery little is known about the events of the 18th centurythere are no surviving portraits of them personallythere are no surviving portraits of them personallythere are no surviving portraits of them personallyfew written references in Dixonfew written references in Dixonfew written references in DixonNational Biography DictionaryNational Biography DictionaryNational Biography Dictionarymysteriously reports they say that hemysteriously reports they say that hemysteriously reports they say that heborn in a coal mine leavingborn in a coal mine leavingborn in a coal mine leavingthe reader's fantasy of explaining so muchthe reader's fantasy of explaining so muchthe reader's fantasy of explaining so muchunusual circumstances and adds thatunusual circumstances and adds thatunusual circumstances and adds thathe died in the dramahe died in the dramahe died in the dramaIn 1777, in addition to the name and mention ofIn 1777, in addition to the name and mention ofIn 1777, in addition to the name and mention oflong-term cooperation with masonlong-term cooperation with masonlong-term cooperation with masonnothing more is reported with masonnothing more is reported with masonnothing more is reported with masonclarity and a little less is known that inclarity and a little less is known that inclarity and a little less is known that inIn 1772, on the recommendation of Mask Line, heIn 1772, on the recommendation of Mask Line, heIn 1772, on the recommendation of Mask Line, heaccepted the assignment to find a suitableaccepted the assignment to find a suitableaccepted the assignment to find a suitablemountain to conduct an experiment withmountain to conduct an experiment withmountain to conduct an experiment withgravitational deviation from weight and ingravitational deviation from weight and ingravitational deviation from weight and infinally reported on the required mountainfinally reported on the required mountainfinally reported on the required mountainare located in the north of Scotlandare located in the north of Scotlandare located in the north of Scotlandover the lake t.i. and it's called sheover the lake t.i. and it's called sheover the lake t.i. and it's called sheHallion, however, could not be convinced by anything.Hallion, however, could not be convinced by anything.Hallion, however, could not be convinced by anything.him to stay there for the summer to spendhim to stay there for the summer to spendhim to stay there for the summer to spendhe never measured anything morehe never measured anything morehe never measured anything morereturned to dust researchreturned to dust researchreturned to dust researchthe next mention of him is inthe next mention of him is inthe next mention of him is inIn 1786, when he was under mysterious circumstancesIn 1786, when he was under mysterious circumstancesIn 1786, when he was under mysterious circumstancescircumstancescircumstancescircumstancessuddenly showed up with his wife and eightsuddenly showed up with his wife and eightsuddenly showed up with his wife and eightchildren philadelphia being apparentlychildren philadelphia being apparentlychildren philadelphia being apparentlyon the brink of poverty after completionon the brink of poverty after completionon the brink of poverty after completionhe did not return from topographic surveyshe did not return from topographic surveyshe did not return from topographic surveysin America at 18 years old and he had noin America at 18 years old and he had noin America at 18 years old and he had noreasons known to us will appear herereasons known to us will appear herereasons known to us will appear hereagain not friends or patrons whoagain not friends or patrons whoagain not friends or patrons whowould be glad to have itwould be glad to have itwould be glad to have it3 weeks later he3 weeks later he3 weeks later hepassed awaypassed awaypassed awaysince mason refused to do sosince mason refused to do sosince mason refused to do sofilming the mountain this work fell to the lotfilming the mountain this work fell to the lotfilming the mountain this work fell to the lotmasks line and in summermasks line and in summermasks line and in summer1774 masks line for four months1774 masks line for four months1774 masks line for four monthssettled in a tent in a mountain valley insettled in a tent in a mountain valley insettled in a tent in a mountain valley indeep in scotland to leaddeep in scotland to leaddeep in scotland to leadteams of surveyors who carried outteams of surveyors who carried outteams of surveyors who carried outhundreds of measurements in all available .hundreds of measurements in all available .hundreds of measurements in all available .to determine the mass of a mountain based onto determine the mass of a mountain based onto determine the mass of a mountain based onthis set of numbers was requiredthis set of numbers was requiredthis set of numbers was requireddo a lot of calculations for this jobdo a lot of calculations for this jobdo a lot of calculations for this jobmathematician charles hutton was brought inmathematician charles hutton was brought inmathematician charles hutton was brought insurveyors in the village map of sets of numberssurveyors in the village map of sets of numberssurveyors in the village map of sets of numberseach meant the height in separate pointseach meant the height in separate pointseach meant the height in separate pointsmountains or their surroundingsmountains or their surroundingsmountains or their surroundingsit turned out to be a terrible mess with the numbersit turned out to be a terrible mess with the numbersit turned out to be a terrible mess with the numbersHutton noticed that if you take a pencil andHutton noticed that if you take a pencil andHutton noticed that if you take a pencil andconnect numbers that mean equal heightsconnect numbers that mean equal heightsconnect numbers that mean equal heightsthen everything becomes much clearerthen everything becomes much clearerthen everything becomes much clearerit was immediately possible to get an idea aboutit was immediately possible to get an idea aboutit was immediately possible to get an idea aboutthe general outline and steepness of the mountainthe general outline and steepness of the mountainthe general outline and steepness of the mountainso hutton invented both plaster and linesso hutton invented both plaster and linesso hutton invented both plaster and linesdifferent heightsdifferent heightsdifferent heightsextrapolating the measurements of Mount Shah-Ali Heextrapolating the measurements of Mount Shah-Ali Heextrapolating the measurements of Mount Shah-Ali HeHutton calculated the mass of the earth to be 5 billionHutton calculated the mass of the earth to be 5 billionHutton calculated the mass of the earth to be 5 billiontrillions of tons and from here it was possibletrillions of tons and from here it was possibletrillions of tons and from here it was possiblederive the masses of all other large bodiesderive the masses of all other large bodiesderive the masses of all other large bodiessolar systemsolar systemsolar systemincluding the sun itself so thanksincluding the sun itself so thanksincluding the sun itself so thanksWe learned from this one experimentWe learned from this one experimentWe learned from this one experimentmasses of the earth and the sun, the moon and othersmasses of the earth and the sun, the moon and othersmasses of the earth and the sun, the moon and othersplanets and their satellites and in additionplanets and their satellites and in additionplanets and their satellites and in additiongot it because of the plaster and it's not bad for workgot it because of the plaster and it's not bad for workgot it because of the plaster and it's not bad for workone summer really these resultsone summer really these resultsone summer really these resultsnot everyone was satisfied with the shortcomingsnot everyone was satisfied with the shortcomingsnot everyone was satisfied with the shortcomingsexperiments peas or he was amazed thatexperiments peas or he was amazed thatexperiments peas or he was amazed thatthat it was impossible to obtain accuratethat it was impossible to obtain accuratethat it was impossible to obtain accuratenumbers without knowing the density of the Hutton mountain fornumbers without knowing the density of the Hutton mountain fornumbers without knowing the density of the Hutton mountain forconvenience accepted its equal densityconvenience accepted its equal densityconvenience accepted its equal densityan ordinary stone is about two centimetersan ordinary stone is about two centimetersan ordinary stone is about two centimetershalf the density of water buthalf the density of water buthalf the density of water butit was nothing more than scientificit was nothing more than scientificit was nothing more than scientificthe most unusual assumption at firstthe most unusual assumption at firstthe most unusual assumption at firsta look at the figure that surprised a lot of attentiona look at the figure that surprised a lot of attentiona look at the figure that surprised a lot of attentionthe questions of the axis of the earth were ruralthe questions of the axis of the earth were ruralthe questions of the axis of the earth were rurala priest named john mitchell who lived ina priest named john mitchell who lived ina priest named john mitchell who lived inthe remote Yorkshire village of Thornhillthe remote Yorkshire village of Thornhillthe remote Yorkshire village of Thornhilldespite the remoteness of residence anddespite the remoteness of residence anddespite the remoteness of residence andMitchell's relatively modest positionMitchell's relatively modest positionMitchell's relatively modest positionwas one of the outstanding thinkers of the 17was one of the outstanding thinkers of the 17was one of the outstanding thinkers of the 17centuries and as a scientist enjoyed greatcenturies and as a scientist enjoyed greatcenturies and as a scientist enjoyed greatwith respectwith respectwith respectAmong many other scientific achievements, heAmong many other scientific achievements, heAmong many other scientific achievements, hethe wave comprehended a similar naturethe wave comprehended a similar naturethe wave comprehended a similar natureearthquakes carried out a whole seriesearthquakes carried out a whole seriesearthquakes carried out a whole seriesoriginal research in the fieldoriginal research in the fieldoriginal research in the fieldmagnetism and gravity and what is completelymagnetism and gravity and what is completelymagnetism and gravity and what is completelyamazingly foresaw the possibility of blackamazingly foresaw the possibility of blackamazingly foresaw the possibility of blackholes two hundred years earlier than others stepholes two hundred years earlier than others stepholes two hundred years earlier than others stepwhich even Newton couldn't dowhich even Newton couldn't dowhich even Newton couldn't dowhen german born musician williamwhen german born musician williamwhen german born musician williamHerschel decided that it was genuineHerschel decided that it was genuineHerschel decided that it was genuinethe calling of life is astronomythe calling of life is astronomythe calling of life is astronomymanagement how are things telescope hemanagement how are things telescope hemanagement how are things telescope heI turned specifically to Mitchell, whose kind andI turned specifically to Mitchell, whose kind andI turned specifically to Mitchell, whose kind andscience will forever be obliged to servicesscience will forever be obliged to servicesscience will forever be obliged to servicesplanets inplanets inplanets inIn 1781, Herschel was the first in modern timesIn 1781, Herschel was the first in modern timesIn 1781, Herschel was the first in modern timesdiscovered the planet he wanted to call it geardiscovered the planet he wanted to call it geardiscovered the planet he wanted to call it gearI will give the honor of the British monarch butI will give the honor of the British monarch butI will give the honor of the British monarch butthe offer was rejected instead shethe offer was rejected instead shethe offer was rejected instead shebecame uraniumbecame uraniumbecame uraniumbut from everything that he left behindbut from everything that he left behindbut from everything that he left behindsword by ingenuity impactsword by ingenuity impactsword by ingenuity impactnothing could affect the development of sciencenothing could affect the development of sciencenothing could affect the development of sciencecompare with the mechanism that itcompare with the mechanism that itcompare with the mechanism that itdesigned and manufactured for measurementdesigned and manufactured for measurementdesigned and manufactured for measurementmasses of the earth unfortunately he died before he couldmasses of the earth unfortunately he died before he couldmasses of the earth unfortunately he died before he couldcarry out experiments idea andcarry out experiments idea andcarry out experiments idea andnecessary equipmentnecessary equipmentnecessary equipmentmoved on to outstanding but amazingmoved on to outstanding but amazingmoved on to outstanding but amazingshy and London scientistshy and London scientistshy and London scientistnamed after Henry Cavendishnamed after Henry Cavendishnamed after Henry CavendishCavendish deserves it in itselfCavendish deserves it in itselfCavendish deserves it in itselfin a separate book born in a richin a separate book born in a richin a separate book born in a richhis grandfather's titled family werehis grandfather's titled family werehis grandfather's titled family wereDukes one I you Shor anotherDukes one I you Shor anotherDukes one I you Shor anotherKemsky he was the most giftedKemsky he was the most giftedKemsky he was the most giftedEnglish scientist of his century and at the same timeEnglish scientist of his century and at the same timeEnglish scientist of his century and at the same timetime the strangest thing he sufferedtime the strangest thing he sufferedtime the strangest thing he sufferedshyness, according to one ofshyness, according to one ofshyness, according to one offew of his biographers have limited themselves tofew of his biographers have limited themselves tofew of his biographers have limited themselves toany human contact was a diseaseany human contact was a diseaseany human contact was a diseasefor him a sourcefor him a sourcefor him a sourcedeepest discomfort oncedeepest discomfort oncedeepest discomfort onceopening the door he saw one on the thresholdopening the door he saw one on the thresholdopening the door he saw one on the thresholdof his Austrian fans onlyof his Austrian fans onlyof his Austrian fans onlythat the Austrian who came from Viennathat the Austrian who came from Viennathat the Austrian who came from Viennabegan to mumble excitedly about hisbegan to mumble excitedly about hisbegan to mumble excitedly about hisadmirationadmirationadmirationFor a while Cavendish took it all inFor a while Cavendish took it all inFor a while Cavendish took it all inthese compliments are like blows with a stickthese compliments are like blows with a stickthese compliments are like blows with a stickthen, unable to bear it, he ran down the path andthen, unable to bear it, he ran down the path andthen, unable to bear it, he ran down the path anddisappeared behind the gate leaving it wide opendisappeared behind the gate leaving it wide opendisappeared behind the gate leaving it wide openone door only after a fewone door only after a fewone door only after a fewhours later he was persuaded to returnhours later he was persuaded to returnhours later he was persuaded to returnown house even the housekeeper communicated withown house even the housekeeper communicated withown house even the housekeeper communicated withhim by correspondence, although sometimes hehim by correspondence, although sometimes hehim by correspondence, although sometimes hedared to appear in society especiallydared to appear in society especiallydared to appear in society especiallyhe loved to visit the named scientifiche loved to visit the named scientifiche loved to visit the named scientificevenings which took place weeklyevenings which took place weeklyevenings which took place weeklythe eminent naturalist Sir Josephthe eminent naturalist Sir Josephthe eminent naturalist Sir JosephBanks was always given to the other guestsBanks was always given to the other guestsBanks was always given to the other guestsunderstand that they should not under any circumstancesunderstand that they should not under any circumstancesunderstand that they should not under any circumstancesCavendish was not even looked atCavendish was not even looked atCavendish was not even looked athis side to those who wanted to know himhis side to those who wanted to know himhis side to those who wanted to know himthe opinion was advised slowly as ifthe opinion was advised slowly as ifthe opinion was advised slowly as ifaccidentally pass by nearby and talkaccidentally pass by nearby and talkaccidentally pass by nearby and talkyou are as if in the void if their linesyou are as if in the void if their linesyou are as if in the void if their linesdeserved attention from the point of viewdeserved attention from the point of viewdeserved attention from the point of viewscience then they could hear an indistinctscience then they could hear an indistinctscience then they could hear an indistinctthe answer but most often in response was heardthe answer but most often in response was heardthe answer but most often in response was heardirritated squeak hair will not be thereirritated squeak hair will not be thereirritated squeak hair will not be therevery tall and looking back you couldvery tall and looking back you couldvery tall and looking back you couldreally see the emptiness and the backreally see the emptiness and the backreally see the emptiness and the backCavendish fleeing to a calmer placeCavendish fleeing to a calmer placeCavendish fleeing to a calmer placecornercornercornerwealth and a tendency to reclusionwealth and a tendency to reclusionwealth and a tendency to reclusiongave him the opportunity to transform his homegave him the opportunity to transform his homegave him the opportunity to transform his homecontributions to a large laboratory where hecontributions to a large laboratory where hecontributions to a large laboratory where hecould roam around all corners without hindrancecould roam around all corners without hindrancecould roam around all corners without hindrancephysical science study of electricityphysical science study of electricityphysical science study of electricityheat gravity word everything thatheat gravity word everything thatheat gravity word everything thatrelated to the structure of the substance of heat andrelated to the structure of the substance of heat andrelated to the structure of the substance of heat andthe 17th century was a time when the tendencythe 17th century was a time when the tendencythe 17th century was a time when the tendencypeople showed deep interest in sciencepeople showed deep interest in sciencepeople showed deep interest in scienceinterest in the properties of fundamentalinterest in the properties of fundamentalinterest in the properties of fundamentalphysical entities, especially gasesphysical entities, especially gasesphysical entities, especially gaseselectricity began to be looked atelectricity began to be looked atelectricity began to be looked atwhat can be done with them by showingwhat can be done with them by showingwhat can be done with them by showingoften more zeal than common senseoften more zeal than common senseoften more zeal than common sensemeaning in america benjamin franklinmeaning in america benjamin franklinmeaning in america benjamin franklinbecame famous for risking your lifebecame famous for risking your lifebecame famous for risking your lifeflying kites in a thunderstorm in france kimikflying kites in a thunderstorm in france kimikflying kites in a thunderstorm in france kimikPilatre de RosierPilatre de RosierPilatre de Rosiertested the flammability of hydrogentested the flammability of hydrogentested the flammability of hydrogentake it in your mouth and blow it out into the opentake it in your mouth and blow it out into the opentake it in your mouth and blow it out into the openflame in one fell swoop he proved that hydrogenflame in one fell swoop he proved that hydrogenflame in one fell swoop he proved that hydrogenit is really flammable and thatit is really flammable and thatit is really flammable and thateyebrows are not a mandatory accessoryeyebrows are not a mandatory accessoryeyebrows are not a mandatory accessoryfaces to see your turn conductedfaces to see your turn conductedfaces to see your turn conductedexperiments during which he was subjected toexperiments during which he was subjected toexperiments during which he was subjected toyourself under the influenceyourself under the influenceyourself under the influenceelectrical discharges of different strengthselectrical discharges of different strengthselectrical discharges of different strengthscarefully noting the increasecarefully noting the increasecarefully noting the increasepainful sensations remainedpainful sensations remainedpainful sensations remainedthe ability to hold a pen or savethe ability to hold a pen or savethe ability to hold a pen or saveconsciousness but not further than thatconsciousness but not further than thatconsciousness but not further than thatCavendish made a number of his long lifeCavendish made a number of his long lifeCavendish made a number of his long lifeoutstanding discoveriesoutstanding discoveriesoutstanding discoverieswhere he was the first to highlight many other thingswhere he was the first to highlight many other thingswhere he was the first to highlight many other thingshydrogen and was the first to combine hydrogen andhydrogen and was the first to combine hydrogen andhydrogen and was the first to combine hydrogen andoxygen received water but almost all thatoxygen received water but almost all thatoxygen received water but almost all thathe did not do without odditieshe did not do without odditieshe did not do without odditiesconstant dissatisfaction of his scientistsconstant dissatisfaction of his scientistsconstant dissatisfaction of his scientistsHe often published his work among his colleaguesHe often published his work among his colleaguesHe often published his work among his colleaguesreferred to the results of experiments onreferred to the results of experiments onreferred to the results of experiments onwhich I had not previously reportedwhich I had not previously reportedwhich I had not previously reportedhe not only resembled secrecyhe not only resembled secrecyhe not only resembled secrecyNewton was superior to him in many waysNewton was superior to him in many waysNewton was superior to him in many wayshis experiments with electricityhis experiments with electricityhis experiments with electricityconductivity was a century aheadconductivity was a century aheadconductivity was a century aheadtime but unfortunately remainedtime but unfortunately remainedtime but unfortunately remainedunknown for centuriesunknown for centuriesunknown for centuriesit didn't really go through most of itit didn't really go through most of itit didn't really go through most of itdone and I knew beforedone and I knew beforedone and I knew beforethe end of the nineteenth century whenthe end of the nineteenth century whenthe end of the nineteenth century whenCambridge physicist James Clerk MaxwellCambridge physicist James Clerk MaxwellCambridge physicist James Clerk Maxwellfounder of the modern theory of magnetismfounder of the modern theory of magnetismfounder of the modern theory of magnetismtook on the task of preparing papers fortook on the task of preparing papers fortook on the task of preparing papers forLinde step printing at that time almost allLinde step printing at that time almost allLinde step printing at that time almost allhis discoveries already belonged to othershis discoveries already belonged to othershis discoveries already belonged to othersscientists among many other things about whatscientists among many other things about whatscientists among many other things about whatCavendish didn't tell anyone he discovered orCavendish didn't tell anyone he discovered orCavendish didn't tell anyone he discovered oranticipated the law of conservation of energyanticipated the law of conservation of energyanticipated the law of conservation of energyOhm's law partial pressure lawOhm's law partial pressure lawOhm's law partial pressure lawdalton law of richter equivalentsdalton law of richter equivalentsdalton law of richter equivalentsCharles's Ideal Gas Law PrinciplesCharles's Ideal Gas Law PrinciplesCharles's Ideal Gas Law Principleselectrical conductivity and that's just itelectrical conductivity and that's just itelectrical conductivity and that's just itpart of all discoveries according to the statementpart of all discoveries according to the statementpart of all discoveries according to the statementhistorian of science crowther a cavendish evenhistorian of science crowther a cavendish evenhistorian of science crowther a cavendish evenI was amazed by Kelvin's research andI was amazed by Kelvin's research andI was amazed by Kelvin's research andDarwin slowing down the influence of the tidalDarwin slowing down the influence of the tidalDarwin slowing down the influence of the tidalfriction on the speed of rotation of the earthfriction on the speed of rotation of the earthfriction on the speed of rotation of the earthcommunication published in 1915communication published in 1915communication published in 1915barbarian and local atmosphericbarbarian and local atmosphericbarbarian and local atmosphericcooling work pickeringcooling work pickeringcooling work pickeringfreezing mixtures and some offreezing mixtures and some offreezing mixtures and some ofcorpses of the rus boom and heterogeneous ones is equal tocorpses of the rus boom and heterogeneous ones is equal tocorpses of the rus boom and heterogeneous ones is equal tofinally he got the resultsfinally he got the resultsfinally he got the resultswhich directly led towhich directly led towhich directly led tothe discovery of a group of elements known asthe discovery of a group of elements known asthe discovery of a group of elements known asinert gasesinert gasesinert gasessome of which are so elusive thatsome of which are so elusive thatsome of which are so elusive thatthe latter could not be detected untilthe latter could not be detected untilthe latter could not be detected until1962 but in this case we1962 but in this case we1962 but in this case weI'm interested in the last known oneI'm interested in the last known oneI'm interested in the last known onecavendish experiments and when latecavendish experiments and when latecavendish experiments and when latein summerin summerin summerIn 1797, at the age of 67, he convertedIn 1797, at the age of 67, he convertedIn 1797, at the age of 67, he convertedattention to the box with equipmentattention to the box with equipmentattention to the box with equipmentleft to him obviously from pureleft to him obviously from pureleft to him obviously from purescientific respect john sword commodityscientific respect john sword commodityscientific respect john sword commodityMitchell's device looked like a training deviceMitchell's device looked like a training deviceMitchell's device looked like a training devicefor muscle pumping firm nautilusfor muscle pumping firm nautilusfor muscle pumping firm nautilusMade in the 18th century it included weightsMade in the 18th century it included weightsMade in the 18th century it included weightscounterweights pendulums handles andcounterweights pendulums handles andcounterweights pendulums handles andtwisting metal cablestwisting metal cablestwisting metal cablesthe core of the device was 2,350the core of the device was 2,350the core of the device was 2,350pound lead balls placed side by sidepound lead balls placed side by sidepound lead balls placed side by sidewith two smaller balls the ideawith two smaller balls the ideawith two smaller balls the ideaconsisted in measuringconsisted in measuringconsisted in measuringgravitational deflection of small ballsgravitational deflection of small ballsgravitational deflection of small ballsunder the influence of large which allowedunder the influence of large which allowedunder the influence of large which allowedwould be the first to measure the elusive scarletwould be the first to measure the elusive scarletwould be the first to measure the elusive scarletthe value of the gravitational constant athe value of the gravitational constant athe value of the gravitational constant afrom here one could deduce the weight of afrom here one could deduce the weight of afrom here one could deduce the weight of amore precisely, the mass of the earth for a physicistmore precisely, the mass of the earth for a physicistmore precisely, the mass of the earth for a physicistmass and weight are two completely different thingsmass and weight are two completely different thingsmass and weight are two completely different thingsyour mass remains the same whereveryour mass remains the same whereveryour mass remains the same whereverno matter where you are, the weight changesno matter where you are, the weight changesno matter where you are, the weight changesdepending on how far you aredepending on how far you aredepending on how far you arelocated from the center of another massivelocated from the center of another massivelocated from the center of another massiveobject like a planet go toobject like a planet go toobject like a planet go tothe moon and there you will be much easier but notthe moon and there you will be much easier but notthe moon and there you will be much easier but notless massive on the groundless massive on the groundless massive on the groundutilitarian considerations mass and weightutilitarian considerations mass and weightutilitarian considerations mass and weightare identified so that both termsare identified so that both termsare identified so that both termscan be considered synonyms at leastcan be considered synonyms at leastcan be considered synonyms at leastoutside the classroomoutside the classroomoutside the classroombecause gravity holdsbecause gravity holdsbecause gravity holdsplanets in orbit and things that weplanets in orbit and things that weplanets in orbit and things that wewe drop with a thud we fall to the floorwe drop with a thud we fall to the floorwe drop with a thud we fall to the floortend to think that it is a very powerful forcetend to think that it is a very powerful forcetend to think that it is a very powerful forcebut in reality it is not so she isbut in reality it is not so she isbut in reality it is not so she ispowerful only in a collective sense whenpowerful only in a collective sense whenpowerful only in a collective sense whenone massive object like the sunone massive object like the sunone massive object like the sunhold another massive objecthold another massive objecthold another massive objectlike earth on an elemental levellike earth on an elemental levellike earth on an elemental levelgravity is extremely weak every timegravity is extremely weak every timegravity is extremely weak every timewhen you take a book from the table orwhen you take a book from the table orwhen you take a book from the table oryou pick up a coin from the floor without any difficultyyou pick up a coin from the floor without any difficultyyou pick up a coin from the floor without any difficultyovercome gravitational tensionovercome gravitational tensionovercome gravitational tensionthe whole planet and here is Cavendish justthe whole planet and here is Cavendish justthe whole planet and here is Cavendish justtried to measure the attraction betweentried to measure the attraction betweentried to measure the attraction betweenvery easy subjects are the key to successvery easy subjects are the key to successvery easy subjects are the key to successthere was precision in the room where they are locatedthere was precision in the room where they are locatedthere was precision in the room where they are locatedthe device could not be allowed to have the slightestthe device could not be allowed to have the slightestthe device could not be allowed to have the slightestinterference so that Cavendish settled ininterference so that Cavendish settled ininterference so that Cavendish settled inthe next room and kept watch throughthe next room and kept watch throughthe next room and kept watch throughspecial peephole with a telescopespecial peephole with a telescopespecial peephole with a telescopethe work was unimaginably gruelingthe work was unimaginably gruelingthe work was unimaginably gruelingit tookit tookit took17 Precise Interrelated Measurements17 Precise Interrelated Measurements17 Precise Interrelated Measurementsthe implementation of which took almost a whole yearthe implementation of which took almost a whole yearthe implementation of which took almost a whole yearthe year when finally the new rock finishedthe year when finally the new rock finishedthe year when finally the new rock finishedcalculations he announced that the earth weighs a littlecalculations he announced that the earth weighs a littlecalculations he announced that the earth weighs a littlemoremoremore6 billion trillion metric tons6 billion trillion metric tons6 billion trillion metric tonsif you use a modern systemif you use a modern systemif you use a modern systemmeasurements and a metric ton is 1000measurements and a metric ton is 1000measurements and a metric ton is 1000kilograms or two thousand two hundred and fivekilograms or two thousand two hundred and fivekilograms or two thousand two hundred and fivepounds today scientists have in theirpounds today scientists have in theirpounds today scientists have in theirthe devices at our disposal are so precisethe devices at our disposal are so precisethe devices at our disposal are so precisewhat can determine the weight of an individualwhat can determine the weight of an individualwhat can determine the weight of an individualbacteria are so sensitive and thatbacteria are so sensitive and thatbacteria are so sensitive and thatmay malfunction if someone yawnsmay malfunction if someone yawnsmay malfunction if someone yawns20 meters away but they only20 meters away but they only20 meters away but they onlyslightly clarified the resultsslightly clarified the resultsslightly clarified the resultsreceived by cavendish them1797 according to the most accurate current data1797 according to the most accurate current data1797 according to the most accurate current dataThe earth is estimated to weigh 5 point ninetyThe earth is estimated to weigh 5 point ninetyThe earth is estimated to weigh 5 point ninetyseven twenty five billion trillionseven twenty five billion trillionseven twenty five billion trilliontons difference compared to datatons difference compared to datatons difference compared to datathe cavendish received by them was only halfthe cavendish received by them was only halfthe cavendish received by them was only halfpercentpercentpercentIt's interesting that all these measurements are justIt's interesting that all these measurements are justIt's interesting that all these measurements are justconfirmed the estimates made by Newtonconfirmed the estimates made by Newtonconfirmed the estimates made by Newton110 years before cavendish without any110 years before cavendish without any110 years before cavendish without anyexperiments in general at the end of the 18th century scientistsexperiments in general at the end of the 18th century scientistsexperiments in general at the end of the 18th century scientistshad a very precise idea of the formhad a very precise idea of the formhad a very precise idea of the formand the size of the land I would and the distance fromand the size of the land I would and the distance fromand the size of the land I would and the distance fromthe sun and planets now even cavendishthe sun and planets now even cavendishthe sun and planets now even cavendishwithout leaving home added to thesewithout leaving home added to thesewithout leaving home added to theseinformation about the mass of land, so it was possibleinformation about the mass of land, so it was possibleinformation about the mass of land, so it was possibleexpect that the age determination of the earthexpect that the age determination of the earthexpect that the age determination of the earthIt seems like a relatively simple matter at the endIt seems like a relatively simple matter at the endIt seems like a relatively simple matter at the endat the end the necessary materials are lying aroundat the end the necessary materials are lying aroundat the end the necessary materials are lying aroundliterally under our feetliterally under our feetliterally under our feetbut no, people will split it and then invent somethingbut no, people will split it and then invent somethingbut no, people will split it and then invent somethingtelevision nylon and instant coffeetelevision nylon and instant coffeetelevision nylon and instant coffeebefore they determine their own agebefore they determine their own agebefore they determine their own ageplanets\n"